Yao Ethnic Minority

The Yao ethnic group is one of China’s oldest ethnic minorities. The Yao language belongs to the Hmong-Mien branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which is further divided into the Yao and Miao subgroups. The Yao people are considered descendants of the ancient Eastern tribe of “Jiu Li” (九黎) and are one of the most widely distributed ethnic minorities in southern China. They are also one of the longest-living ethnic groups in the country. According to legend, the Yao people are the descendants of Pan Hu (盘瑚) and Emperor Ku‘s (帝喾) third daughter, Princess San Gong (三公主).

As of the 2010 census, the Yao population in China was 2,796,003, with the majority living in Guangxi (广西), Hunan (湖南), Guangdong (广东), Yunnan (云南), Guizhou (贵州), and Jiangxi (江西) provinces. The largest population is in Guangxi, with 1,471,946 people, accounting for about 55.8% of the national Yao population. Other regions with significant Yao populations include Hunan (704,564 people), Guangdong (202,667 people), Yunnan (190,610 people), Guizhou (44,392 people), and Jiangxi (1,198 people).

According to the 2021 China Statistical Yearbook (2021中国统计年鉴), the total population of the Yao people is 3,309,341, with 1,722,586 males and 1,586,755 females.

Yao Ethnic Minority Names and Classifications

The Yao people are known by many different names. They self-identify using over 28 distinct names, and they are also referred to by nearly 100 different names by other ethnic groups. Some of the self-designations include “Mian” (勉), meaning “person,” “Bunu” (布努), “Jinmen” (金门), “Naoglao” (瑙格劳), “Lajia” (拉珈), “Bingduoyou” (炳多优), “Wunai” (唔奈), and “Zaomin” (藻敏). Historically, due to their origin legends, lifestyle, residence, and attire, the Yao have been referred to by over 30 different names, including:

• Pan Yao (盘瑶)

• Mountain Yao (过山瑶)

• Tea Mountain Yao (茶山瑶)

• Red Head Yao (红头瑶)

• Flower Yao (花瑶)

• Blue Flower Yao (花蓝瑶)

• Indigo Yao (蓝靛瑶)

• White Pant Yao (白裤瑶)

• Plain Yao (平地瑶)

Based on differences in language, customs, and beliefs, the Yao people can generally be divided into four main branches:

1. Pan Yao Branch (盘瑶) – Also known as the Yao Language Branch, primarily speaking the Mien (苗瑶语) language.

2. Miao Yao Branch (苗瑶) – Known for speaking the Miao (苗) language group, including subgroups such as Bunu Yao (布努瑶), White Pant Yao (白裤瑶), Flower Yao (花瑶), Blue Flower Yao (花蓝瑶), and parts of Red Head Yao (红瑶).

3. Dong Shui Yao Branch (侗水瑶) – Includes Tea Mountain Yao (茶山瑶) and Na Xi Yao (那溪瑶).

4. Chinese Dialect Branch (汉语方言支系) – A branch of Yao people speaking various Chinese dialects.

Historical Development of the Yao People

Migration and Early History

The ancestors of the Yao people were part of the ancient Eastern tribe of the “Nine Li” (九黎) and later migrated towards Hubei (湖北) and Hunan (湖南) regions. The Yao people are considered one of China’s oldest minorities, having migrated from central China to the southern mountainous areas. During the Qin (秦) and Han (汉) Dynasties, the Yao ancestors resided in areas like Changsha (长沙), Wuling (武陵), and the Five Creeks (五溪) region, and they were collectively referred to as the Wuling Barbarians (武陵蛮) or Five Creeks Barbarians (五溪蛮) in historical records.

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties (南北朝), some Yao people were known as “Mo Yao” (莫徭), living in areas like Hengyang (衡阳) and Lingling (零陵). These areas were known for their rugged terrain, and the Yao people resisted political control from the central government.

Tang to Yuan Dynasties

In the Sui (隋) and Tang (唐) Dynasties, the Yao people were mainly concentrated in the mountainous regions of today’s Hunan (湖南), Guangxi (广西), and Guangdong (广东). The saying “There is no mountain in the South Range without the Yao” (南岭无山不有瑶) encapsulates the deep connection the Yao have to the mountains in which they resided. During the Five Dynasties (五代) and the Tang Dynasty (唐), many Yao communities thrived in regions like Zijiang (资江) in Hunan (湖南).

Ming and Qing Dynasties

Under the pressures of war, especially during the Yuan Dynasty (元), the Yao people began to migrate southwards, gradually spreading into the heart of the Guangdong (广东) and Guangxi (广西) regions. By the time of the Ming Dynasty (明), Guangxi (广西) and Guangdong (广东) had become the primary areas of Yao settlement. During the late Ming (明末) and early Qing Dynasty (清初), the Yao people expanded further into Yunnan (云南) and Guizhou (贵州), leading to the formation of the current distribution of the Yao people across six southern provinces.

Modern Distribution

By the middle Ming Dynasty (明中期), some Yao people began migrating into Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam (越南), Laos (老挝), and Thailand (泰国), where they established new communities and integrated into the local populations.

Today, the Yao people are primarily found in the six southern provinces of Guangxi (广西), Hunan (湖南), Guangdong (广东), Yunnan (云南), Guizhou (贵州), and Jiangxi (江西), as well as in neighboring Southeast Asian countries.

Social Structure and Historical Development

During the Song (宋), Yuan (元), Ming (明), and Qing (清) Dynasties, the Yao regions in western Guangxi (广西) and Yunnan (云南) were governed by a system of local rulers known as “Tusi” (土司). During the Qing Dynasty (清朝), positions such as “Yao Chief” (瑶长) and “Yao Officer” (瑶练) were established in Yao communities. In the Republic of China (民国), government authorities set up Yao-specific bureaus, such as the Hua Yao Bureau (化瑶局) and An Hua Bureau (安化局), which were similar to county or district-level administrative units. The system evolved further, with the introduction of the Baojia system (保甲制度), a form of community-based military and social organization.

In certain Yao communities, some primitive social structures persisted, including organizations such as Ba Yin (巴引), You Guo (油锅), Yao Lao (瑶老制), and Shi Pai (石牌制), which played crucial roles in maintaining order, managing resources, and resolving conflicts.

Ba Yin Organization

The Ba Yin (巴引) organization, found in Jinxiu Tea Mountain Yao (金秀茶山瑶) in Guangxi, is a blood-based social organization that can be translated as “blood relatives” or “kinship family.” These organizations typically consist of small groups, usually three to five households, and rarely more than ten.

Each village has multiple Ba Yin organizations. These organizations often share common mountain forests, fields, and rivers for hunting, fishing, and farming. The members of a Ba Yin organization share a strong bond, helping each other in daily life and supporting each other during times of crisis, such as death or violent conflicts.

By the 1940s, the system began to weaken with the implementation of the Baojia system by the Republic of China. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国), the Ba Yin organization gradually dissolved, but its traditions of mutual support and cooperation remain important within Yao culture.

You Guo Organization

The You Guo (油锅) organization is a form of paternal lineage-based clan organization found among the Bai Ku Yao (白裤瑶) in Nandan County (南丹县), Guangxi. The term You Guo refers to a family clan whose members share a common ancestor and eat from the same pot. The members of a You Guo are bound together by blood, helping each other defend against external enemies and ensuring that their kin is not ostracized or discriminated against.

These organizations usually consist of three to fifteen households, and in some cases, larger groups may be divided into smaller You Guo groups. The clan has a male elder as its leader, and there is collective ownership of land.

There are unwritten traditions within the You Guo system, such as prohibiting marriage between members and intermarriage with other ethnic groups. Unity and obedience to the leader are crucial within this social structure.

Yao Lao System

The Yao Lao system (瑶老制) is a traditional social organization unique to the Yao people, with roots in the tribal chieftain system of primitive societies. The term “Yao Lao” refers to elders who serve as leaders within Yao communities.

In areas where the Yao Lao system is practiced, such as Miao Lao (庙老), Zhai Lao (寨老), Village Lao (村老), and Mu Lao (目老), the elders are responsible for organizing the community’s religious activities, resolving conflicts between families, and coordinating defense against external threats.

In regions such as Zhai Lao areas, the Yao Lao is usually appointed through a divine judgment rather than democratic elections. The elders do not hold privileges or special status and work without compensation. Their role is to maintain social harmony and help with agricultural decisions, religious ceremonies, and defense.

In places like Village Lao or Mu Lao, Yao Lao are elected by the community and are typically responsible for organizing village activities, coordinating religious rites, and defending the village against external invasions. They serve without pay, and if they fail to meet the community’s expectations, they can be dismissed.

Shi Pai System

The Shi Pai (石牌制) is a political organization found in the Dayaoshan (大瑶山) of Jinxiu, Guangxi, and in the Libo (荔波) region of Guizhou. The Shi Pai system involves creating a set of principles to maintain social order and production, which are then inscribed on stone tablets. These tablets are placed in public meeting areas where the entire village must adhere to these customary laws, also known as Stone Tablet Law (石牌律). Over time, wooden or paper versions of these rules were also created.

The Shi Pai system involves several smaller groups of villages coming together to form a larger collective. The largest organization formed in 1911, referred to as the “General Stone Tablet” (总石牌), which consisted of 36 Yao villages from 72 villages.

The Shi Pai leaders, called Stone Tablet Elders (石牌头人), are not religious or economic leaders but serve to protect production, mediate disputes, prevent theft, and organize defense against bandits. These leaders have significant authority, including the ability to levy fines, administer punishments, or even execute those who violate the Stone Tablet Laws.

While these leaders held considerable power, their actions had to be fair and in accordance with the established rules. If they lost the trust of the community or committed grave violations, they could be removed from office, arrested, or executed. By the early 1930s, most Shi Pai organizations were disbanded, though a few remained until the founding of the People’s Republic of China.

Culture and Beliefs

Religious Beliefs

The Yao people practice polytheistic beliefs, where they view all natural elements as having spirits. In the past, they worshipped a variety of gods, including the village god (寨神), family god (家神), water god (水神), wind god (风神), rain god (雨神), thunder god (雷神), tree god (树神), and mountain god (山神). During festivals and important events, the Yao people would burn incense to honor these gods.

For every significant event in their agricultural lives, such as hunting, deforestation, foraging, plowing, sowing, transplanting, harvesting, building granaries, or eating the first rice of the season, they would consult a Shigong (师公) or a Dao Gong (道公) to select an auspicious day for rituals.

The Panyang Yao (盘瑶) and Shanzi Yao (山子瑶) communities, who primarily cultivate land in the mountains, believe that the mountains are governed by the Mountain God and that worshipping this god is essential for a good harvest. Thus, before hunting wild boars, mountain goats, or other animals that damage crops, they would first pray to the Mountain God for protection. After a successful hunt, the animal’s head would be used as an offering to the Mountain God before the meat is distributed.

Totem Worship and Ancestor Reverence

Totem worship has been a significant aspect of Yao culture. The Panyang Yao, Shanzi Yao, and Aoyao Yao (坳瑶) worship the Pan Hu (盘瓠) totem and refrain from eating dog meat as part of their tradition. The legend of the “Mother Monkey” (母猴妈妈) from Nandan Da Yao Village (南丹大瑶寨), in Guangxi (广西), has been passed down for centuries, highlighting the Yao people’s deep connection to totem worship.

The Panyang Yao, Shanzi Yao, and Aoyao Yao not only believe that Pan Hu is their ancestor, from whom twelve Yao clans were born, but also that their ancestors survived a great storm at sea during migration due to the protection of Pan Hu. As a result, they perform a ceremonial dance called the “Jumping of the Pan Wang” (跳盘王), singing songs of praise for their ancestor to inspire resilience and unity. They also pray for prosperity and the well-being of their descendants.

In ancient times, the Yao people believed that a deceased person had three spirits: one remained in the burial site, one stayed in the home, and one went to the Yangzhou Eighteen Caves (扬州十八洞). This belief led to elaborate funeral practices and various burial customs. The reverence for ancestors is closely linked with ghost worship, where the ancestors, including clan leaders, became revered spirits. The Pan Wang dance and Qingming Tomb Sweeping (清明扫墓) rituals are representative of Yao ancestor worship.

Rites of Passage and Coming of Age Ceremonies

For the Panyang Yao, Lanshan Yao (蓝靛瑶), and some Chashan Yao (茶山瑶), young people must undergo a coming-of-age ceremony called “Du Jie” (度戒), which is similar to a rite of passage. The ceremony involves difficult trials, such as performing a backward fall from a one-meter-high platform, climbing a ladder studded with sharp knives, or walking barefoot over a blazing fire pit. Only after successfully completing these tests can one marry, start a family, and participate in social activities, including receiving teachings from a Shigong or Dao Gong.

Other Yao subgroups, such as Shigong (师公) or Dao Gong (道公), also undergo the Du Jie ceremony, as these roles are essential in driving away evil spirits and guiding the souls of the deceased. Regardless of the location, these ceremonies are marked by large feasts and celebrations, often involving large quantities of pig meat. Though the Du Jie ceremony has been simplified in modern times, it still retains some traditional elements, such as walking on fire and climbing the knife ladder, which have become popular cultural performances in some Yao areas for ethnic tourism.

Religious Influences

Since the Song (宋) and Yuan (元) Dynasties, both Taoism (道教) and Buddhism (佛教) gradually spread to the Yao communities. During the Qing Dynasty (清朝), Taoism became widely practiced. After the Opium War (鸦片战争), many Western missionaries entered Yao regions in Guangxi, establishing churches and spreading Christianity. As a result, some Yao communities in regions such as Wumanshan (十万大山), Yongfu (永福), and Jinxiu (金秀) now have members who practice Catholicism.

Traditional Clothing and Hairstyles

Clothing

Both Yao men and women are known for their long hair. Historical records from the Han Dynasty (汉朝) mention that the Yao people wore five-colored clothes. The tradition of wearing long hair, tied in a top knot, is also mentioned in the Hou Han Shu (后汉书), one of the historical texts. These historical records also note that the Yao wore intricate, multicolored garments, with men often barefoot and women adorning their heads with elaborate headdresses.

Headwear and Decorations

Women’s Headwear

The women of the Yao people, especially in areas like Jinxiu Dayaoshan (金秀大瑶山) and Chashan Yao, wear a variety of intricate headdresses. Some women in the Shanzi Yao community wear large silver hairpins shaped like arcs, each weighing about one kilogram. The women from Aoyao (坳瑶) wear hats made from newly cut bamboo shells, adorned with silver hairpins and chains.

The Hongtou Yao (红头瑶) in Yunnan (云南) are known for their strikingly elaborate attire. Young girls and boys in this community wear round, flat hats made of cloth. The women in Hongtou Yao from the Ma’an Di (马鞍底) area of Jinping (金平) shave their heads completely and wrap their hair with red cloth to create large, heavy bundles, a feature that gives them the nickname “Big Red Cloth-Wrapped Yao” (大红布包头瑶).

In northern Guangxi, Yunnan, and parts of Guangdong, some Yao women wear unique, high-standing hats made of cloth, covered with black fabric and red tassels. These hats have a distinctive style, marking the Yao people’s cultural heritage.

Men’s Headwear

In parts of Lian Nan County (连南), Guangdong, Yao men wear their hair tied in a bun, wrapped with red cloth and decorated with pheasant feathers, giving them a striking and regal appearance.

Traditional Clothing

Men’s Clothing

The Yao men’s clothing is rich in history and culture, with distinct designs that reflect their ethnic identity. In modern times, Yao men’s clothing remains colorful and diverse. The men’s tunic is available in two styles: the double-breasted (对襟) and the left-sided (左大襟), typically paired with a waist belt. Their pants come in various lengths, from long ones reaching the feet to short ones ending at the knees, predominantly in shades of blue or black.

In Nandan County (南丹县), Guangxi (广西), the Bai Ku Yao (白裤瑶) men are known for wearing white lantern pants that end at the knees. These pants have red borders that are 5 cm wide, with intricate patterns of black-and-white cross lines, and five red straight lines embroidered on top, creating a bold contrast. The design is not only eye-catching but also functional for climbing and hunting, as the short and tight fit of the pants helps ease movement.

In Tianlin County (田林县), Guangxi, Mubing Yao (木柄瑶) men wear a short tunic with a left-overlap (左衽短衣), held by a white cloth belt, paired with long pants that have white edges and pleated skirts at the bottom.

In Lian Nan (连南) of Guangdong (广东), Bapai Yao (八排瑶) men wear black, red-bordered floral skirts during ceremonial dress.

Women’s Clothing

The clothing of Yao women varies by region. In some areas, women wear short tunics without collars, tied at the waist, and skirts of various lengths. In other regions, women wear knee-length double-breasted tops (对襟上衣), tied with a long sash at the waist, paired with long pants or short skirts. Many of their clothes feature beautiful and colorful embroidery along the collars, sleeves, and pant hems.

The women of Panyang Yao (盘瑶) wear long or short double-breasted tunics tied at the waist.

The Bunu Yao (布努瑶) women primarily wear a top and skirt but, due to their interactions with the Han and Zhuang (壮族) peoples, some have adopted long pants, while others still wear long robes.

In Nandan’s Bai Ku Yao (南丹白裤瑶), women have distinct summer and winter attire. Winter clothes consist of a short right-overlap tunic (右衽短衣), while summer attire is unique, featuring a black-and-white cloth patch in the front and a white wax-dyed cloth in the back, with geometric patterns like the swastika (卐字纹) and hook patterns (回形纹). These two cloth pieces are not stitched together but instead secured with cloth ties.

The women of Hong Yao (红瑶) from Longsheng (龙胜), Guangxi, wear rose-red cross-collared short tunics without buttons, with a bright red sash at the waist. The sleeves reach the wrists, and the tunic is slit on both sides. Many Yao women, in addition to wearing silver jewelry such as silver plates, bracelets, earrings, and necklaces, adorn themselves with these accessories to complete their attire.

Footwear

Historically, Yao men and women of all ages would go barefoot. According to the Qingyuan Fu Zhi (庆远府志), a historical text from the Qing Dynasty (清朝), Yao people were noted for their thick, wrinkled feet, which allowed them to walk comfortably on rugged, rocky terrain without damage. As living standards improved, the Yao began wearing grass shoes.

Around the time of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, some wealthier Yao men and women began wearing long-toed dragon shoes and cloth shoes made of blue fabric.

In the 1960s and 1970s, middle-aged and young Yao people started wearing rubber shoes, such as the Liberation shoes (解放鞋) favored by the Yao in Jinxiu Dayaoshan (金秀大瑶山), which were durable and suitable for hiking.

Today, the number of Yao people wearing shoes has significantly increased, and barefoot walking is rare. The younger generation, in particular, enjoys wearing various types of leather shoes and sports shoes.

Diet

The Yao people primarily eat corn and rice as their staple foods. In the Lingnan (岭南) region, with its warm climate and fertile soil, vegetables grow throughout the year, providing a constant supply of fresh produce such as mustard greens, cabbage, radishes, chili peppers, and eggplants. They also grow a variety of melons and beans, including pumpkins, cucumbers, winter melons, string beans, soybeans, and rice beans. Meat options typically include pork, chicken, duck, beef, and mutton. The Yao also use a variety of oils, including pig lard, peanut oil, tea oil, hemp oil, and sunflower seed oil.

Traditional Yao Food: Oil Tea

One distinctive Yao tradition is making Oil Tea (油茶). The process involves frying tea leaves with ginger, garlic, and peanuts, creating a thick, flavorful broth. This is often served with roasted rice and fried beans, giving it a unique taste. In some regions, Yao people substitute lunch with this traditional oil tea.

Meat Mountain: A Unique Feast

In Jinxiu, the Yao community hosts a special meal called the “Meat Mountain” (肉山), which is prepared during the “San Zhao” (三朝) celebration for children. The meal consists of several layers of dishes, with the bottom layers containing bamboo shoots, mushrooms, vegetables, and pork intestines, while the middle layers have lean meats, pig liver, and pig stomach, each piece as large as a palm. The top layer consists of a large, two-kilogram piece of fatty meat, creating a “mountain” of food weighing over 20 kilograms. This “Meat Mountain” is served in a large basket, and guests sit around it, taking portions as they wish.

Dietary Restrictions

Many Yao communities avoid eating dog meat, and if they do prepare it, they ensure that it is cooked outside the house to maintain their cultural taboo.

Architecture

The Yao people are a mountain-dwelling ethnic group, and their villages are typically located in dense forests at altitudes of around 1,000 meters. These villages are often situated on mountaintops, hillsides, or along streams at the foot of mountains.

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Yao people in remote mountain areas mostly lived in bamboo huts, wooden houses, and thatched cottages. A significant portion also lived in “human-shaped sheds” (人字棚), with only a few having brick-and-tile houses.

Yao housing comes in four main types: the horizontal wide style, the bamboo railing style, the curved long corridor style, and the straight long corridor style. The traditional homes of the Ao Yao (坳瑶) in Jinxiu Dayaoshan (金秀大瑶山), Guangxi (广西), are distinctive, with two doors at the main entrance—one being the yang door (阳门) for daily use, and the yin door (阴门), which remains closed except during funerals or ancestral ceremonies. When a death occurs, the yin door opens to allow the deceased’s soul to pass in and out.

After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, especially since the reform and opening-up period, the Yao people have increasingly built brick and tile houses, and many have adopted modern concrete buildings. In Luoyun Village (罗运村) in Luoxiang Township (罗香乡), Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County (金秀瑶族自治县), after the construction of a road in 2001, nearly every house in the village was replaced with new ones within two years. Many of these homes are beautifully designed and decorated, comparable to urban villas.

Language

More than 60% of Yao people speak languages belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language family, specifically the Miao-Yao language group. They refer to themselves as “Mian” (勉) or by various regional dialects, such as Youmian, Biaomin, and Zhaomian. About one-third of Yao people speak languages from the Miao-Yao language group, specifically from the Miao branch, with dialects such as Bunu, Nunu, and Dongnu. Some Yao people speak Zhuang-Dong languages, particularly the Dong Shui (侗水) dialect. Additionally, a number of Yao people speak only Chinese.

Due to prolonged interaction with Han (汉), Zhuang (壮), and other ethnic groups, most Yao people are bilingual in Chinese, and some are also familiar with the languages of neighboring minority groups.

Academically, it is generally believed that the Yao did not have their own written script. Historically, they used “wooden notches” (木契) or “wooden grids” (打木格) for recording events. Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Yao people in Nandan County (南丹县), Guangxi, and Dayaoshan (大瑶山) used bamboo notches for documentation. In some regions of Western Guangxi, Yao people used small stones, soybeans, or corn kernels to record events, a practice known as “marking with objects” (打标记事).

The Yao have also been using Chinese characters to carve inscriptions, record lyrics, and transcribe scriptures for a long time. In Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County, they still preserve hand-copied songbooks and scriptures from the Ming Dynasty (明朝).

Some scholars suggest that the Yao may have had their own script. After mastering Chinese writing, Yao priests and folk singers created a script by modifying Chinese characters, mixing them with their own language. This script, known as Ancient Yao Script (古瑶文), is primarily used by priests, folk singers, and Yao scholars for recording cultural texts. It combines four types of characters: borrowing Chinese words, using Chinese characters to represent Yao sounds, using Chinese pronunciations for Yao meanings, and combining Chinese radicals to create new characters.

In 1982, Yao scholars from Beijing, in collaboration with related organizations, designed a Latin-based phonetic system for the Yao language, using Mian as the base. This script includes 30 initials, 130 finals, and 8 tones, initially tested in some regions of Guangdong and Guangxi. In 1984, a unified Yao writing system was established in collaboration with Dr. Joseph Hou, a Yao-American scholar.

Literature

The Yao people’s folk literature is rich and diverse, passed down orally and occasionally transcribed in Chinese. It includes myths, stories, legends, ballads, riddles, and spoken words.

Among the most famous myths are “Pangu” (盘古), “Miluo Tuo” (密洛陀), “The Siblings of Fuxi” (伏羲兄妹), and “Panhu” (盘瓠), which reflect the origins of the world and humanity. Popular legends, such as “The Legend of the Long Drum” (长鼓的传说), “The Origin of the Pankong King” (跳盘王的由来), and “The Legend of the Zuzhou Festival” (祝著节的传说), were created to commemorate their ancestors. Stories like “The Legend of Crossing the Ocean” (漂洋过海的传说) and “The Legend of Qianjiadong” (千家垌的传说) depict the Yao people’s migration and resilience through historical challenges.

The Yao have many traditional folk songs, with men and women often engaging in duet singing, sometimes continuing from evening until dawn. These acapella songs cover a wide range of themes: creation myths, history, love, labor, resistance against oppression, customs, humor, and communication through songs. The Yao have also used songs as a means of defying the ruling class, as reflected in the famous lines, “The official has thousands of soldiers, but I have thousands of mountains” (官有万兵，我有万山) and “The golden dragon emerges from the great cave, the sea horse returns to the pond” (金龙出大洞，海马归池塘).

Yao Medicine

The Yao people, who have lived deep in the mountains and dense forests for centuries, have accumulated rich medicinal knowledge passed down through generations. This knowledge has been honed through their constant struggle against the changing climate, harmful diseases, venomous creatures, and various other natural challenges. Yao medicine, also known as Yao herbal medicine, is a unique healing system based on a deep understanding of herbal remedies.

A famous practice is the herbal bath (药浴) from the Jiangpan Yao (江盘瑶) community, which uses a blend of numerous herbs native to the Yao Mountains. The process involves precise techniques, such as selecting the right herbs based on their growth location and the appropriate time of year for harvest. The herbs are carefully prepared using specific temperature and timing, ensuring the most effective treatment. These herbal baths are known to relieve fatigue, ease joint pain, prevent colds, treat skin diseases, and alleviate various other ailments such as rheumatism, arthritis, and gynecological disorders.

Most Yao herbalists practice using single herbs or specific formulas passed down through family generations, often transmitted from father to son or from grandfather to grandson. Some formulas are so secretive that they are passed to daughters-in-law rather than daughters.

Historically, the Yao did not have their own written language. Instead, the knowledge of Yao medicine was transmitted orally, through direct teaching and by practicing with herbs. This allowed the Yao people to learn the names, properties, and uses of various herbs, as well as their traditional formulas.

Art

Music

Yao music is known for its rich ethnic and regional colors, with over 20 distinct melodies. One example is the Bunu Yao’s (布努瑶) “Wine Song”, which features powerful, bold lyrics that are short yet vigorous, leaving listeners energized. Another famous song is the “Loud Song” (大声歌) from the Ao Yao (坳瑶) group, typically performed during communal religious ceremonies. The song’s solemn and heavy tone is amplified when sung by a large group, sometimes up to a hundred people, creating a massive, resounding chorus.

Instruments used in Yao music include traditional instruments introduced from Han (汉) regions, such as the suona (唢呐), gong (锣), cymbals (钹), and drums (鼓), as well as the unique long drum (长鼓). This drum, a waist drum, has been a staple of Yao culture since the Song Dynasty (宋代).

Dance

Many Yao dances are tied to religious rituals. The most famous dances are the Long Drum Dance (长鼓舞) and the Bronze Drum Dance (铜鼓舞). The Long Drum Dance is particularly popular among the Pan Yao (盘瑶) subgroup and was performed by the Jinxiu Ao Yao (金秀坳瑶) in Guangxi (广西) in Japan in 1996, where it received widespread praise.

Textiles

As early as the Han Dynasty (汉代), the Yao ancestors were documented as “weaving tree bark and dyeing it with plant dyes.” By the Song Dynasty (宋代), the Yao people had developed the art of using indigo and yellow wax to create intricate patterns on white cloth, a craft known as Yao patterned cloth (瑶斑布). This skill was highly regarded across China. Yao embroidery includes three main techniques: picking flowers (挑花), weaving flowers (织花), and embroidering flowers (绣花). During the Ming (明朝) and Qing Dynasties (清朝), records mention “using five-colored threads to embroider flowers,” a reference to the Yao people’s exquisite handmade crafts.

Since the reform and opening-up period, efforts have been made to preserve traditional Yao cultural crafts, including weaving, dyeing, and embroidery. Local governments have provided funding for younger generations to learn these skills from older artisans, ensuring the survival of these traditional crafts. The Yao also excel in weaving products made from bamboo and rattan, such as bamboo baskets, hats, and rattan boxes.

Carving

The Yao people are skilled in carving, producing works such as door plaques, cigarette boxes, hanging towers, and religious statues. The highest level of carving is seen in the Tea Mountain Yao (茶山瑶) community.

Customs

Production Practices

The production customs of the Yao people vary significantly across different social and economic stages and regions. In areas of Hunan, Guangdong, and Guangxi, where the natural conditions are more favorable and the Han influence is stronger, Yao people rely primarily on agriculture and engage in some forestry activities. These areas’ production practices are similar to those of the Han and Zhuang (壮族) people. They cultivate both dry and irrigated fields, with plowing playing a major role. The tools used for farming are mostly iron-made, and the Yao people produce most of these themselves, with only a few being purchased from outside. The common tools include sickles, machetes, hoes, spades, axes, rakes, scythes, and mortars for grinding grains.

In the western regions of Guangxi, the central areas of the Wuwan Mountains (十万大山), and in some of the more isolated areas on the Yunnan (云南) border, some Yao communities still practice the ancient method of “slash-and-burn” agriculture, known as “Shovel and Fire Farming” (刀耕火种). This practice, typically performed in the lunar months of October and November, involves clearing forested land using axes and machetes, then waiting for the plants to dry out over the winter. In spring, when the plants are dry, a controlled fire is set to burn the vegetation, leaving a layer of ash to fertilize the soil. Men and women work together: the men dig the holes, while the women plant the crops. Once the soil’s fertility decreases, they move to a new piece of land to continue the cycle.

Hunting

The Yao people have long been skilled hunters, using a variety of methods to hunt both birds and animals. As early as the Tang Dynasty (唐代), poets like Du Fu wrote about Yao hunting practices, such as using bows and arrows to hunt geese. Liu Yuxi, another poet, wrote about the Yao hunting traditions in Guangdong (广东), where they set fires to drive animals into traps. Yao people hunt year-round, but the primary hunting season is during the lunar months of February and March, and again in July when agricultural work slows down.

During collective hunts, they often employ techniques like surrounding the prey, setting traps, or using nets. In modern times, firearms have become the primary tool for hunting, although traditional weapons like bows and arrows are still used. Before hunting, Yao people perform rituals to honor the mountain gods and ask for protection and success in their hunt. When they catch large animals, they first offer a prayer of gratitude to the mountain god before distributing the meat.

Gathering

For the Yao people, gathering was once an important supplement to their economy. They would collect edible plants, mushrooms, bamboo shoots, wild vegetables, and the roots and fruits of plants, which could be consumed by themselves or sold for food and other goods. However, since the founding of New China and particularly after the reform and opening-up period, the development of agriculture and industry has diminished the role of gathering in the Yao people’s economy. Today, gathering plays a very minor role in their economic life.

Festivals

The Yao people celebrate many traditional festivals throughout the year, with different regions having their own unique customs. The major festivals include Chinese New Year (春节), Qingming (清明), She Festival (社节), Panwang Festival (盘王节), Zhuzhu Festival (祝著节), and Shawang Festival (耍望节).

Chinese New Year (春节)

During the Chinese New Year, the Yao people hold various cultural activities such as singing folk songs (堂歌), playing the bronze drum (打铜鼓), spinning tops (赛陀螺), crossbow shooting (射弩), hunting (围猎), and playing with embroidered balls (抛绣球). These activities are deeply rooted in Yao traditions and showcase their cultural heritage.

Panwang Festival (盘王节)

The Panwang Festival is one of the most significant traditional festivals for the Pan Yao (盘瑶) people, commemorating their ancestor, Panwang. Traditionally held between the autumn and lunar New Year (农历春节), this festival celebrates the founding ancestor of the Yao people. In 1984, the date for the Panwang Festival was unified across all Yao communities in China to be celebrated on October 16th (农历十月十六日) each year.

Zhuzhu Festival (祝著节)

The Zhuzhu Festival is a major celebration for the Bunu Yao (布努瑶) people, held to commemorate the birthday of their founding mother, Miluotuo (密洛陀). This festival is celebrated with great enthusiasm and lasts for three days, with activities such as drumming and festive dances. It takes place on the 29th day of the 5th lunar month (农历五月二十九日).

Shawang Festival (耍望节)

The Shawang Festival is a unique celebration held every three to five years, usually around October 16th (农历十月十六日). It is a day when young men and women sing songs to express their love for one another, and it is an important occasion for courtship and social gatherings.

Marriage Customs

The traditional marriage customs of the Yao people primarily revolve around bride-price marriages, followed by the practice of husband-taking (where a man moves into the wife’s family).

Pre-Revolution Marriage Customs

Before the founding of New China, the Yao people generally did not marry outside their ethnic group. Marriages typically began with young men and women building relationships through activities such as singing during festivals or other social events. If the couple developed mutual feelings, they would seek parental approval before marriage.

Post-Revolution Marriage Changes

After the establishment of New China and the implementation of the nation’s policies promoting ethnic equality, barriers between the Yao and other ethnic groups began to break down, and inter-ethnic marriages increased. According to the 2006 China Ethnic Statistical Yearbook, by 2000, the intermarriage rate among Yao people and other ethnic groups had reached 26.46%.

In traditional Yao marriages, the bride’s family often received a dowry, which could include money and pig meat. After marriage, living arrangements varied; in some cases, the woman would live with her husband’s family, while in others, the couple would alternate living between the bride’s and groom’s families. In certain cases, the wife would live with her parents until she gave birth or stayed for a period before moving to her husband’s home.

Unique Marriage Customs in Guangxi

In Guangxi’s Jinxiuyao Autonomous County, the Aoyao people have a marriage tradition called “Ding Liang Tou” (顶两头). If both spouses are only children, they alternate living and working between the bride’s and groom’s families. The first child takes the father’s surname, and the second takes the mother’s surname. When the children are young, they live with both sets of grandparents, but as they grow older, they stay with either their paternal or maternal grandparents.

In the Dayao Village of Guangxi’s Nandan County, as well as in Longsheng Tongle and Panpang, the tradition of cross-cousin marriage (where a niece marries her uncle’s son) existed, but this custom has been abolished after the founding of New China.

Funeral Customs

The funeral practices of the Yao people vary by region, with most areas practicing burial, while others, such as those in Guangxi and Guizhou, have unique customs.

Traditional Burial Practices

The majority of Yao people practice earth burial. However, the Chashan Yao people in Guangxi’s Liuzhou prefer cremation, while the Qing Yao people in Libo County, Guizhou practice cave burial. White Pant Yao (白裤瑶) also traditionally used this type of burial.

In Guangdong’s Liannan Bapai Yao, the deceased are tied to a chair, and during the funeral procession, the body is carried like a palanquin to the burial site. This practice is known as “traveling corpse burial” (游尸葬).

Child Burial Rituals

Historically, the Chashan Yao, Hualan Yao, and Aoyao people in Guangxi believed that children were sent to the world by the “Flower Goddess” (花婆神). If a child died before the age of six, their body would be wrapped in tattered clothes or other materials such as palm fiber, placed in a bamboo basket, and hung on a tree in the deep forest. This practice, called “hanging burial” (挂葬), was believed to help the child’s spirit return to the Flower Goddess for reincarnation. This practice is now rare.

Modern Funeral Practices

As time has progressed, Yao funeral customs have evolved. In areas like Guangxi’s Jinxiuyao Autonomous County, the funeral ritual used to involve “stopping the coffin, burning the bones, and collecting the ashes”, but under the influence of the Hualan Yao, it evolved into “stopping the coffin and collecting the bones” before ultimately becoming the current “burial with bone collection” (埋棺捡骨葬). In contemporary Yao communities, traditional earth burial is still common in rural areas, while cremation in funeral homes has become more accepted in economically and culturally advanced regions.

Famous Figures

The Yao ethnic group has produced many notable individuals who have made significant contributions in various fields, from politics to culture, and even sports.

Historical Figures

• Li Tao (李涛): Born in September 1905 in Xinpo Village, Yanshou Township, Rucheng County, Hunan Province. A founding general of the People’s Republic of China.

• Jiang Hua (江华): Born in July 1907 in Zhepingtang Village, Jianghua County, Hunan Province. He served as the President of the Supreme People’s Court in 1975 and was a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China.

• Chen Weiren (陈为人): A revolutionary martyr, one of the 57 founding members of the Communist Party of China. He played a key role in establishing the Chinese Socialist Youth League during the May Fourth Movement.

• Li Qihan (李启汉): One of the earliest members of the Communist Party of China, a prominent early labor movement leader, and contributed greatly to the Chinese labor class.

• He Mengxiong (何孟雄): One of the 53 founding members of the Communist Party of China, who held various positions, including Secretary of the Beijing Municipal Party Committee.

• Wang Zhi (汪直): A Yao from Guangxi’s Datiangxia, who served as a prominent eunuch during the Ming Dynasty and was appointed as the head of the Ming Emperor’s Imperial Guard.

Revolutionary Leaders

• Hou Dagou (侯大苟): Leader of the Yao people’s uprising in the Ming Dynasty, which involved significant military victories and territorial control, causing alarm for the Ming Dynasty.

• Zhou Wei (周渭): A loyal minister during the Song Dynasty, known for his impartiality and integrity in office, revered as a model of justice.

• Xiao Muji (孝穆纪皇后): A Yao empress of the Ming Dynasty, the mother of Emperor Zhu Youtang, who was a key figure in the reform and governance of the Ming Empire.

• Pan Hu (盘瓠): A legendary ancestor of the Yao people, who married Emperor Ku’s third daughter, establishing a significant familial link between the Yao and the ancient Chinese imperial lineage.

Modern Notables

• Wang Can (王璨): The top science student in the 2000 Hunan Provincial Entrance Examination.

• Mo Fanren (莫凡人): The top science student in Guangxi’s 2013 entrance exams from Fuchuan Yao Autonomous County.

• Li Zhongming (李忠明): The top science student in the 2015 Guangxi Entrance Exams from Dongshan Yao Township, Quanzhou County, Guangxi.

• Meng Dixiao (孟笛萧): The top literature student in Guangxi’s 2016 Entrance Exams from Gongcheng Yao Autonomous County, Guilin.

• Luo Meizhen (罗美珍): A remarkable centenarian from Bama Yao Autonomous County, Guangxi, who lived to be 128 years old, being recognized as the oldest living person in China at the time of her passing in 2013.

• Zhao Tingguang (赵廷光): Former Member of the Standing Committee of the Communist Party of Yunnan Province and a renowned academic and leader.

• Zhao Yisheng (赵乙生): Former Member of the Standing Committee of the Communist Party of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Organization Department Director, and Nanning Municipal Party Committee Secretary.

Contributors to Culture and Arts

• Zheng Junli (郑军里): Director of the Guangxi Art Institute, serving as a National Political Consultative Committee member and contributing to China’s artistic landscape.

• Song Kehui (宋克慧): President of Huaihua College, specializing in quantum physics and research in optical and quantum sciences, receiving prestigious awards for her contributions.

• Deng Youzhi (邓有志): Former Standing Committee Member of the Hunan Provincial Party Committee and Vice Chairman of the Hunan Provincial Political Consultative Conference.

• Jin Baosheng (金宝生): Former Vice Chairman of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Deputy Chairman of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission.

• Maoh Hanling (毛汉领): Vice President of Guangxi University, Professor, and Doctor of Engineering with notable scientific achievements and patents.

Sports Icons

• Wang Mingjuan (王明娟): A Gold Medalist in Weightlifting at the 2012 London Olympics from Jiangyong County, Hunan Province.

• Jiang Huihua (蒋惠花): A prominent Weightlifting Champion with multiple National Championships and World Championship Golds.

Literary Figures

• Li Zhibao (李知宝): A member of both the Chinese Calligraphers Association and China Artists Association, with prominent roles in multiple cultural organizations across China.

These influential figures from the Yao community have significantly impacted various sectors of Chinese society and the world at large, from the military and politics to culture, sports, and academia. Their contributions are an important part of the Yao ethnic group’s rich legacy.