Jino Ethnic Minority

The Jino (基诺) people are one of the lesser-known ethnic groups in Yunnan Province, China. Their population is concentrated primarily in the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture (西双版纳傣族自治州) in the southern part of the province, particularly in the Jino Mountain area. The Jino people speak Jino language (基诺语), a part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, but do not have a written language. Historically, they used carvings on wood or bamboo for recording numbers and events, with Mandarin (汉语) serving as the common language.

Distribution and Population

The Jino population is mainly found in the following areas:

• Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture (西双版纳傣族自治州), including Jinghong (景洪) and the Jino Mountain (基诺山) region.

• Small scattered populations can also be found in areas such as Mengla County (勐腊县), including Menglun (勐仑) and Mengxing (勐腊).

As of 2021, the population of the Jino ethnic group in China is approximately 26,025.

History and Origins

There are two primary theories regarding the origin of the Jino people: one is that they are indigenous to the region, while the other theory suggests they migrated from the north. According to local folklore, the Jino people trace their ancestry to a couple who survived a great flood, with a sage guiding them to safety. The legend states that they were given gourd seeds, which later sprouted, symbolizing the birth of the Jino people, alongside other ethnic groups like the Han (汉), Dai (傣), and Hani (哈尼) people.

Traditional Culture and Practices

Language

The Jino people speak Jino, which belongs to the Yi (彝语) subgroup of the Sino-Tibetan language family. They have no written script, relying instead on carvings to record events and communicate in the past. Mandarin (汉语) is widely used in daily life today.

Beliefs

The Jino people practice sun worship, a belief system rooted in their ancient culture. They regard the sun as a divine being capable of bringing prosperity and blessings.

Festivals

The Jino people celebrate various traditional festivals, with the most significant being their New Rice Festival (新米节), where they celebrate the harvest and give thanks for the year’s crops.

Social Structure and Family

In ancient times, the Jino society was matriarchal. The Jino people trace their ancestry through the mother, and their early settlements were organized around mother villages. Over time, this structure shifted to a patriarchal society. Despite these changes, the Jino people maintain strong clan-based ties and continue to hold ancestral rituals to honor their roots.

The Jino’s Connection to Nature

The Jino are closely connected to their natural surroundings, living primarily in mountain villages and practicing a traditional agricultural lifestyle. They are known for their ability to adapt their farming practices, particularly through the cultivation of dry rice (旱稻), a staple crop in the region.

Notable Cultural Sites

• Jino Mountain (基诺山): A cultural heartland for the Jino people, which holds great significance in their history and cultural practices.

• Jino Mountain Villages: The villages in this area still preserve traditional stilt houses and are known for their unique, rich cultural heritage.

Historical Governance

The Jino people were traditionally governed by local chiefs, with historical ties to the Dai (傣) ethnic group. In the 18th century, during the Qing Dynasty (清朝), the Jino regions were incorporated into the wider Xishuangbanna (西双版纳) administration. They faced multiple challenges in the 20th century, including under the Nationalist government (民国) in the 1940s, when the Jino people revolted against oppressive taxes and forced labor.

Today, the Jino remain a close-knit community, holding onto their traditional customs, rituals, and language while also engaging with the broader social and economic developments in Yunnan Province.

Social Structure and Governance

Traditional Social Organization

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Jino people’s social structure was based on geographical and clan-based units, where each village operated like an independent commune. The Jino villages were traditionally governed by two elders, who handled administrative, ritual, and production matters. The elders’ authority was not based on wealth or military prowess, but on age and respect.

Each village or commune had a specific land distribution system. These included:

1. Community land ownership within the village.

2. Clan-based land ownership, where clans had the right to share and distribute land.

3. Private land ownership by individual families, although land could not be fully sold or transferred without returning it to the clan upon moving.

Despite varying land ownership systems, the Jino never fully adopted private land ownership, and communal and clan-based land use remained central to their society.

Political and Cultural Structure

The main leaders in Jino villages were called “Zhuoba” (寨父) and “Zhuose” (寨母), representing the village’s two main clans. These elders were the most respected individuals in the community and were responsible for organizing rituals, administering daily life, and overseeing agricultural and production activities. Their decisions on key matters, such as sowing seeds and setting the New Year, were highly respected.

Though the Jino people had local leaders, political control from external authorities began with the Dai (傣) feudal lords and continued during the Republic of China (民国). The influence of the central government became more evident during the 20th century, especially with the establishment of local governance in the 1950s.

Historical Development

Early History and Migration

The Jino people’s origins are not entirely clear, with some legends suggesting they migrated from the north, passing through areas such as Kunming (昆明) and Eshan County (峨山县) before settling in Jino Mountain. These legends highlight the Jino’s deep cultural connections with neighboring ethnic groups such as the Han (汉), Dai (傣), and Hani (哈尼) people.

A prominent legend tells of Mahei and Manyu, a brother and sister who survived a great flood and were protected by a divine sage. This story reflects the Jino’s ancient ties with various ethnic groups.

Political Changes in the 20th Century

• In the 18th century, under the Qing Dynasty (清朝), Jino Mountain was part of the Xishuangbanna (西双版纳) region, ruled by Dai feudal lords.

• In 1950, Menglian (勐养) established a local government to manage the Jino Mountain area. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) later engaged in ethnic work to strengthen relations and develop the area.

• In 1956, the Jino people received recognition, and by 1958, the Jino Mountain District Government was formed.

Transition to Modern Governance

After the Cultural Revolution and China’s reform policies, the Jino people gradually embraced socialist reforms. In 1988, Jino Mountain was officially designated as Jino Ethnic Township (基诺山基诺族民族乡) under Jinghong County (景洪县), reflecting their evolving political and social structure.

Cultural and Agricultural Practices

The Jino people traditionally practiced mountain agriculture, focusing on dry rice cultivation and hunting. They also maintained a communal agricultural system, where work was often shared between families, and labor was divided according to traditional customs.

Their culture is deeply rooted in animistic beliefs and ancestor worship, with various rituals and festivals celebrating nature and the harvest.

Notable Cultural and Political Milestones

• 1956: The Jino were officially recognized as a distinct ethnic group by the government.

• 1958: Jino people in 36 villages began to experience ethnic equality and self-governance.

• 1988: The Jino Mountain Ethnic Township was established, and it remains part of Jinghong County (景洪县), promoting cultural preservation and sustainable development for the Jino people.

Customary Laws and Social Norms

The Jino (基诺族) people have a set of customary laws that guide social interactions, help resolve disputes, and maintain the traditional social structure. These laws, deeply rooted in their ancient religion and moral ethics, govern various aspects of their daily lives. The Jino community highly respects both spirits and elders. During festivals, the Zhuoba (卓巴) and Zhuose (卓色) families perform a sacrificial ritual, where they each kill a chicken and declare the village rules under the authority of “messengers of the gods.”

Punishments and Social Order

The Jino have a unique practice of using alcohol as a form of punishment. If someone violates village rules or commits an offense, they are typically fined 10 bowls of alcohol. In more severe cases, the punishment may include offering two pigs, over 100 kilograms of rice, and large amounts of alcohol for a communal feast where the entire village gathers. This system fosters social cohesion and ensures that penalties are seen as part of communal life.

Divorce Ceremony

In the case of divorce, a specific ritual is followed: the man provides a pot of wine, and the woman’s uncle pours a cup for both parties. After they drink, the remaining wine is poured on the ground, and the man declares, “You are no longer part of my family, neither in life nor death.” This marks the formal end of the marriage.

Cultural Proverbs and Ethical Teachings

The Jino people’s customary laws and ethical codes are passed down through proverbs, songs, and ancient teachings. Some common proverbs include:

• “A bash should not marry, for after death, they may find a partner.”

• “No marriage within the family, no marriage between brothers.”

• “Two roosters cannot live in the same nest, and a girl cannot fall for two boys.”

• “No matchmaker, no marriage.”

• “Treating your daughter like property will lead to heartbreak.”

• “Crops do not grow where grass does not grow, and a woman who loves vanity cannot manage a household.”

These proverbs reflect the Jino values of family, respect, and morality.

Equality and Fairness

The Jino people hold a strong sense of equality, comparing fairness to a balanced scale. During the traditional land burning ceremony, a Saqi (沙奇, a public notary) checks the width of the firebreak to determine whether the land-burning is conducted fairly. In matters of marriage and divorce, a Saqi is also required to verify the size of the dowry and the wedding gifts, ensuring fairness in the process.

Gender Equality

In matters of relationships, the Jino people also maintain a strong sense of gender equality. For example, the Saqi in charge of monitoring a divorce also plays a crucial role in ensuring the process is fair and just for both parties, including the division of property.

Morality and Social Integrity

The Jino community upholds a simple and pure moral code. They value respect for the elderly, care for the young, and promote mutual aid and unity. Despite living in a community with limited resources, often facing shortages in food and clothing, they are known for their hospitality, hard work, and trustworthiness. Their traditional values are deeply rooted in the belief that honesty and sincerity are essential in all interactions.

The Jino also practice primitive egalitarianism in sharing resources. For instance, any game caught during a hunt, even if it’s a small animal, is shared equally among all members of the village. The tradition of “sharing while fresh, and again while cooked” ensures that everyone who sees the hunter receives a portion of the catch, and they can continue to eat it until it’s finished.

Hospitality and Social Etiquette

When hosting guests, the Jino are very sincere and generous. As long as a guest does not put down their cup, the host will continue to drink with them, showing deep hospitality and respect.

This sense of community, where resources and responsibilities are shared, has allowed the Jino to maintain strong social bonds and a peaceful way of life despite their economic challenges. The practice of egalitarianism and mutual assistance is a key element of their traditional society.

Economy

Agriculture

The Jino (基诺族) people have long been in a relatively primitive state of development, relying primarily on slash-and-burn agriculture before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. This traditional farming method involved clearing forests and rotating crops. The process began with felling trees, drying the branches, and then burning them to use as fertilizer. After a brief period of soil preparation, seeds were sown. Typically, only one crop was grown per year, with no selection of seeds or use of fertilizers. Men would dig holes with a hoe while women sowed the seeds and covered them with soil.

In areas with gentler slopes, a small amount of row planting and broadcasting of seeds would take place. The practice of crop rotation was common, with newly cleared fields being used for one to two years, and the fertile ones being cultivated for up to three years. Crops grown included cotton, dry rice, and maize, after which the fields were abandoned and new land was cleared.

The primary tools used by the Jino people for agriculture included knives, hoes, sickles, and small hand tools. These tools were essential for their day-to-day farming activities.

Tea Cultivation

Jino Mountain (基诺山) is one of the six major tea mountains of Pu’er (普洱), and according to legend, the Jino people began cultivating tea as early as the Three Kingdoms (三国) period. By the early Qing Dynasty, Pu’er tea had flourished, and the six major tea mountains in Xishuangbanna (西双版纳) reached an annual production of up to 80,000 dan (担). Among them, Cheli (车里), Youle Mountain (攸乐山), and Da Menglong (大勐龙) were some of the most productive, with Jino Mountain’s Longpa Village (竜帕寨) becoming a tea production center.

In 1729, the Qing government established the position of Youle Tongzhi (攸乐同知) to oversee tea taxes and levies. Tea merchants and caravans would frequently come to collect the tea leaves. During this period, Jino Mountain became a key center for tea production, playing a vital role in the region’s tea economy.

Modern Agricultural Development

By 1981, the Jino people achieved basic self-sufficiency in food production. The introduction of the household responsibility system in 1984 significantly boosted agricultural productivity. With the implementation of the Western Development Strategy (西部大开发), the Jino people adapted their farming techniques, modernizing the traditional dry land farming approach and incorporating more scientific methods into grain cultivation. Yields of dry rice increased from 100 kilograms per mu in 1980 to 133 kilograms per mu in 1998. By 2003, the area of paddy fields remained stable at around 6,000 mu, and the per capita grain yield increased from 478 kilograms in 1979 to 628 kilograms in 1998.

With the support of research and technology, the Jino people also expanded the cultivation of economic crops such as tea, cardamom, and rubber. This development not only boosted the local economy but also improved the ecological environment, creating a positive feedback loop between ecological and economic benefits. The area of natural reserves designated for protection reached 86,215 mu, with state-owned forests covering 447,758 mu, accounting for 57.8% of the total area.

Livestock Farming

By the early 1980s, Jino livestock farming was still in its primitive stage, with large livestock like cattle and buffalo primarily used for sacrifices and meat consumption, rather than for plowing. Pigs, dogs, and chickens were also commonly raised, with most animals allowed to roam freely around the village and hillside fields.

Hunting was an essential skill for Jino men. It was considered a primary measure of a man’s ability, with hunters often carrying crossbows, bows, slingshots, or even firearms while working. The Jino people used traps, snares, and other techniques to catch wild animals. After a successful hunt, the hunter would strike a bamboo drum and sing hunting songs, often engaging in collective hunting events where the spoils were shared among participants.

Fishing was another important subsidiary industry, with rivers such as Xiaohei River (小黑江), Mengwang River (勐旺河), and Butianguo River (卜天河) offering rich fish resources. During the off-farming season, the community would gather to fish, using their catch to make side dishes or preserve it by drying and smoking.

Gathering and Handicrafts

Women played a significant role in the Jino economy through gathering wild vegetables, fruits, and insects. The mountains surrounding Jino Mountain are home to a wide variety of edible plants and fungi, such as bamboo shoots, wood ears, and various mushrooms, as well as over 20 types of wild fruits and 30 types of wild vegetables. Women often carry large cloth sacks to collect these resources while foraging.

Handicrafts

The Jino people are also skilled in various traditional handicrafts. Women are particularly skilled in spinning and weaving, often seen making thread or embroidering clothing. The Jino use a traditional waist loom to weave cloth, which is later used to make durable fabric. The process involves the use of a wooden stick, resembling a sickle, to press and tighten the woven fabric.

Men are skilled in bamboo weaving, which is essential for daily life in the village. Jino homes are built using bamboo, and many of their household items such as furniture, baskets, and even tools are made from bamboo. Bamboo is used for a wide variety of purposes, from cooking implements to musical instruments.

Jino handicrafts also include carving using wood, bamboo, and even ox horns to create altars, coffins, earrings, and everyday utensils such as bowls and spoons. Additionally, they excel in clay sculpting, creating figures of people, animals, and other ceremonial items for ritual purposes.

Metalworking

Every Jino village has its blacksmith, who produces tools such as axes, sickles, hoes, and plows, as well as household items like knives, shovels, and pots. The skill of ironworking was introduced to the Jino by the Han (汉) people. Though the Jino are not able to smelt iron themselves, they rely on trade with merchants to acquire raw materials for their ironwork.

Culture

Beliefs

The Jino (基诺族) people have a unique religious outlook, which is centered on the belief in spirits in all things. They believe that mountains have their own mountain gods, lands have earth gods, villages have village gods, and valleys have valley gods. Many traditional festivals and rituals are held throughout the year, with prayers and offerings made to the gods during harvests, celebrations of childbirth, and in times of disaster.

The largest annual religious event is the “Temo Ke” Festival (特懋克节), which features a sun drum ceremony. The sun drum is the most sacred ritual object and musical instrument of the Jino people. It has two sides, known as the male drum and the female drum, and is considered a symbol of the village and the manifestation of divine spirits. The purpose of the ceremony is to pray for prosperity, abundant harvests, and the well-being of the people in the village.

Other significant religious festivals include the “Nuo Mo Luo” (喏嫫洛) ceremony to honor the creation god A Mo Yao Bo (阿嫫杳孛), the “Hao Xi Zao” (好希早) festival dedicated to ancestors, as well as ceremonies like the “Gu Hun” (谷魂), “Ji Da Long” (祭大竜), and “Ji Xiao Long” (祭小竜) festivals. Each of these ceremonies has specific rules, often requiring animal sacrifices such as pigs and dogs. The scale of the ceremony depends on the size and ferocity of the animal hunted, with larger animals requiring grander rituals. After the ceremony, the animals are consumed by the villagers. The ceremonies are usually led by the village elders, Zhuo Ba (卓巴) and Zhuo Se (卓色), and the ritualistic prayers are conducted by the village shamans known as Bai La Pao (白腊跑) and Mo Pei (莫培).

Shamans are highly respected members of the community. They are not only experts in traditional customs and historical knowledge but are also known for their songs and are the keepers of long oral epics. Shamans play a crucial role in passing down Jino culture and beliefs.

Clothing

The traditional attire of Jino men consists of a black-and-white plaid shirt made of hemp or cotton, with a round neckline and no buttons. The back of the shirt often features a square red patch, embroidered with a beautiful sunflower pattern, which some believe is a representation of the Eight Trigrams (八卦) associated with the famous strategist Zhuge Kongming (诸葛孔明). Men wear wide, long white or blue pants or shorts, and a wide cloth belt is tied around the waist. Before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, many Jino men kept three tufts of hair on their heads: the central tuft was a tribute to Zhuge Kongming, while the left and right tufts symbolized the parents.

Women wear a colorful, embroidered blouse with a collarless design, and the lower garment is a black skirt with red edges. Nowadays, some Jino women wear long skirts instead. Traditionally, Jino women wrap their legs with cloth and tie their hair in a high bun. They also wear a white linen headscarf, topped with a pointed hat that extends to the shoulders, creating an elegant and lively look. In the past, both men and women went barefoot and had a habit of chewing betel nuts or using rosewood ink to stain their teeth. Both men and women have pierced ears, with bamboo or wood plugs inserted, and the size of the ear hole is considered a sign of beauty.

Cuisine

The Jino people typically eat three meals a day, with rice being the staple food, along with other grains like corn, squash, and beans. They are very particular about the quality of rice, preferring fresh rice, while old rice is mainly used to feed livestock or for brewing alcohol. Jino people enjoy eating green corn and have a variety of traditional cooking methods. Breakfast often consists of sticky rice balls, while lunch is commonly eaten with salt and chili wrapped in banana leaves. Sometimes, rice is taken to the mountains, where it is cooked inside bamboo tubes along with wild vegetables. Dinner typically includes rice along with vegetables, wild herbs, and game meat from hunting, with meat being reserved for special occasions like weddings or funerals.

The Jino people enjoy sour, spicy, and salty flavors, with a particular fondness for sourness. Sour bamboo shoots are a staple of their diet. Gri Luo fruit is often mashed with chili and salt to create a spicy seasoning that accompanies every meal. Cooking methods are diverse and include roasting, boiling, and stir-frying. Some of the Jino‘s most distinctive dishes include bamboo-tube rice, sour bamboo shoots with dog meat, bitter fruit with beef, grilled ants, roasted spiders, boiled bamboo rat porridge, and banana-leaf grilled meat.

The Jino people are also known for their love of alcohol, and there is a saying in the community that “a day without alcohol is impossible.” The alcohol is often brewed from their own rice or corn and is flavored with plants such as Lock Mei leaves (锁梅叶), giving the drink a natural green color and a distinctive plant aroma. It is believed to have health benefits, particularly for strengthening the spleen. Jino people also enjoy drinking old leaf tea, which is brewed by boiling the leaves with water until the soup becomes thick.

Among the Jino women in villages like Mao E (毛俄) and Qie Ma (茄玛), there is a practice of eating a unique type of clay from the local area. Some elderly women have developed a craving for this earth and cannot feel comfortable without eating it daily. Studies have shown that this clay contains small amounts of essential elements such as copper, iron, calcium, and zinc.

Architecture

Jino (基诺族) villages are typically built on gentle, sun-facing slopes. The houses are constructed in the traditional “Ganlan” style (干栏式), which is a type of bamboo house supported by wooden frameworks. These houses resemble the Kongming hat, and it is said that the design of these houses was taught by Zhuge Kongming (诸葛孔明).

The bamboo houses are supported by large wooden beams and columns, joined together without metal fastenings. The walls and floors are made from bamboo slats, and the roofs are covered with thatch. The living quarters are on the upper floor, while the lower floor is left open, serving as a space for storing tools, goods, and housing livestock.

The house features two balconies: the front one is connected to the staircase, and the rear one is used for drying clothes and weaving. Inside, rooms are divided according to the number of family members, and the living room serves multiple purposes, including as a kitchen and dining area. In the center of the room is a hearth, which is surrounded by three stone cooking supports in a tripod shape. Above the hearth, there is a bamboo basket used for hanging and storing food. This hearth and the stone supports are sacred household items where tea is drunk, conversations take place, and family affairs are managed.

The roofs of the bamboo houses are often decorated with earring flowers made of thatch, which can be a mark of social status. Ordinary households have six such decorations, while the homes of village elders have ten. These ear-ring flowers help identify the owner’s position in society.

There are two main types of Jino houses: one has a hearth and accommodates an extended patrilineal family of five to ten people. In the 1940s, before the Nationalist forces suppressed the Jino people’s rebellion, many villages had extended families of fifty to sixty people living together under the leadership of a male head, eating communally. The second type of house is found in Longpa Village (竜帕寨), where a large rectangular bamboo house spans about 30 to 40 meters in length and 8 to 10 meters in width. Multiple generations of the same family live here in separate smaller units, each with its own hearth and living quarters. These houses reflect the transition from extended families to smaller, independent household units, showing the evolution of Jino society.

Literature

The Jino people have a rich tradition of folklore, including myths, stories, poems, riddles, and proverbs.

Myths

Some of the most widely known myths include “Mahei and Maniu” (玛黑和玛妞) and “Amo Yao Bo” (阿嫫杳孛).

Folktales

The Jino people have many folktales, some of which reflect themes of pure love, such as “The Two Young Men” (两个小伙子), while others focus on the idea of good being rewarded and evil being punished, like in “The Precious Sword and Bamboo Flute” (宝刀和竹笛), “The Monkey and the Man” (猴子和人), and “The Big Sister and the Fourth Sister” (大姐和四妹). There are also clever characters in stories such as “The Story of Awe” (阿维的故事), and tales that praise hardworking, loyal, and kind women like “Bai La Jie and Bai La Che” (白腊杰和白腊车), “Choosing a Bride” (选新娘), and “The Story of Orphan Ya Jie” (孤儿腰杰的故事). Other stories focus on bravery and self-sacrifice, such as “Sha Qie and the Snake” (沙切和蛇郎) and “Egg Girl” (鸡蛋姑娘). Additionally, there are fables like “The Jade Shell and the Wild Cat” (玉波壳和野猫), “The Frog and the Monkey” (青蛙和猴子), and “The Frog’s Judgment” (青蛙断案), which convey moral lessons.

Poetry

The Jino people have both narrative and lyrical poetry, which are rich in content, subtle in tone, and full of life. One of the most famous narrative epics is “Ba Shi and Mi Shi” (巴诗与米诗), which tells the poignant and beautiful love story between a Jino man and woman.

Riddles and Proverbs

Jino riddles often reflect natural phenomena and daily life, including tools and household items. They are poetic and carry artistic charm. Proverbs, on the other hand, are simple and easy to understand, yet contain profound meanings.

Calendar and Timekeeping

The Jino (基诺族) people follow a lunar calendar based on the phases of the moon. The year is divided into 12 months, although the calendar does not have distinct names for each month. The songs of the Jino people refer to “11 months in a year, with 30 days in a month,” with the extra month being the “Guo Nian Yue” (过年月), which does not have a fixed number of days.

The Jino people mark time by observing the order of creation by their deity Amo Yao Bo (阿嫫杳孛). Their system of reckoning days and years is based on a 12-day cycle. Each day has a name and significance:

• Day 1: Yi Cuo (伊搓), Water Day

• Day 2: Ni Ma (尼嫫), Amo Yao Bo Day (Creator’s Day)

• Day 3: Zhao Ou (扎欧), Sun Day

• Day 4: Bu Luo (布洛), Moon Day

• Day 5: Ni (尼), Star Day

• Day 6: Mao (冒), Day of Union

• Day 7: Xi (西), Grass Day

• Day 8: Sa E (萨厄), Wind Day

• Day 9: Se E (色额), Tree Day

• Day 10: Bu Huo (布霍), Rain Day

• Day 11: Xi Duo (西夺), Seven Suns Day

• Day 12: Mi Chuo (米刍), Fire Day

Jino years are based on a 12-year cycle, sometimes extended to 13 years when a full cycle includes the repeating year.

The Jino New Year begins with the “Te Mao Ke” Festival (特懋克节), which falls around early spring when certain natural events occur, such as the budding of birch trees, the flowering of the “Dou Zha Tree” (豆渣树), and the growth of moss in Xiao Hei River (小黑江). This marks the beginning of the agricultural year, with activities like clearing land and preparing for the farming season. Planting ceremonies for crops such as cotton and corn start when the “Zhi Liao” (知了) cicadas begin to call in late winter (around February). The festival cycle continues with various agricultural rites for planting, weeding, and harvest, including the “Nuo Ma Luo” (喏嫫洛) festival for the god of creation, Amo Yao Bo.

Education

During the Republic of China (民国) era, the Jino people had very limited access to education, with a school briefly established in Baya Village (巴亚寨) that could not operate due to a lack of students.

In 1953, after the establishment of Xishuangbanna Prefecture (西双版纳州), efforts were made to improve education. By 1956, three elementary schools were established in Baya Village, Baka Village (巴卡寨), and Balai Village (巴来), with 170 children attending school as the first generation of Jino students. In 1957, the Jino Luoke Central Primary School (基诺洛克中心小学) was established. By 1960, there were nine elementary schools in Jino Mountain (基诺山) with over 800 students. In 1962, the first cohort of Jino students graduated from junior high school.

By the mid-1980s, the Jino people had established a full boarding primary school and expanded access to education for children in remote villages. In 1996, Jino Township (基诺乡) completed the nine-year compulsory education program. By 2003, Jino Mountain had 43 primary schools and one junior high school, with an enrollment rate of 99.9% and a graduation rate of 97.02%. This made Jino Township one of the first minority areas in Xishuangbanna to fully implement compulsory education.

Healthcare

In 1957, Jino Mountain established a health clinic with three medical staff sent by the provincial government. These medical professionals provided mobile medical services to the villages, trained health workers, and supported the development of Jino traditional medicine.

By 1965, the healthcare network in Jino Mountain was well established, with local Jino doctors and basic health workers. In the 1970s, cooperative medical practices were established, with clinics run by barefoot doctors in each village.

By the mid-1980s, Jino Mountain built a new steel-concrete clinic building, which included western and traditional Chinese medical services, a gynecology department, an operating room, and 30 beds. The number of medical staff grew to 19, with Jino doctors making up 70% of the staff. This modern healthcare infrastructure helped improve health standards and eliminate the region’s reputation as a “malaria-prone” area.

Art and Culture

Music

The Jino people (基诺族) have a strong tradition of music, which plays an important role in their cultural expression. From a young age, Jino children enjoy learning songs, often improvising lyrics that reflect their emotions and surroundings. Their songs are melodic and deeply moving. During festivals and celebrations, elders often sing joyously, and the youth may be moved to dance.

Jino folk songs cover a variety of themes, including narrative songs, wedding songs, festival songs, hunting songs, welcoming songs, love songs, children’s songs, and religious songs. These songs are used as a way to pass on knowledge, such as songs about hunting, planting, and seasonal changes. Songs about love, marriage, social norms, and moral values also exist, offering both entertainment and instruction. In times of conflict, Jino people also use songs to express dissatisfaction and resolve issues in a calm and diplomatic manner, often avoiding direct confrontation.

The primary traditional musical instruments of the Jino include the large drum known as “Sai Tu” (塞土), bamboo percussion instruments like “Qi Ke” (七柯) and “Bu Gu” (布古), bamboo wind instruments like “Bi Tu Lu” (毕土鲁), “Bei Tuo” (贝托), “Yue Zhe” (约遮), “Bie Bie” (别别), “Bie Bie Cuo Lie Lie” (别别搓列列), as well as the mouth harp, erhu, “Mang Luo” (芒锣), and cymbals.

Dance

Jino folk dances are divided into ceremonial dances and recreational dances.

• Ceremonial dances include the Big Drum Dance (大鼓舞), New House Dance, Funeral Dance, and Ancestor Worship Dance. The Big Drum Dance is the most distinct and culturally significant, representing the Jino people’s reverence for deities, ancestors, and fertility. It has been included in the first batch of both national and provincial intangible cultural heritage lists. The Big Drum, also known as the Sun Drum or Sai Tu (塞吐), is central to religious ceremonies and is considered a symbol of larger deities. Traditionally, the Big Drum Dance is performed twice a year: during the “Te Mao Ke” Festival (特懋克节) and the “Ni Ba La” (尼叭腊) ritual.

• Recreational dances include dances like “Zuo Jiao Jiao Mai” (佐交交麦), a children’s dance, “Zhu Gu Neng” (竹骨能), a girls’ dance, and “Tiao Sheng” (跳笙), among others.

Traditions

Festivals

The most important and grand festival for the Jino people is “Te Mao Ke” (特懋克节), also called the “Te Mao Qie” (特毛切) Festival, which celebrates the New Year. It symbolizes the creation and use of iron tools, a key aspect of Jino culture. In the past, these celebrations were held at the village level, with no fixed date, and the Zhuo Ba (卓巴), a community leader, would decide when the festival began. The festival traditionally starts when the Zhuo Ba strikes the Big Drum, signaling the beginning of the festivities. In 1988, the Xishuangbanna People’s Congress (西双版纳州人大常委会) officially designated February 6-8 as the Jino New Year based on their traditional customs.

During this time, most villages pool resources to buy cattle and organize a ceremonial cattle spearing event. A group of men armed with spears takes turns throwing at a tied-up cow. After killing the cow, the villagers offer part of its meat as a sacrifice and share the rest among themselves. Special dishes like “Ke Le Sha” (克勒刹), a cold dish made from beef, skin, blood, bitter gall, garlic, chili, pickled bamboo shoots, betel nuts, and green leaves, are prepared and given to neighboring villages’ elders, accompanied by praise and admiration.

After the cattle spearing, each household performs a ritual with the Zhuo Ba, and a feast is organized with the Big Drum Dance. The villagers also bring bamboo rats to blacksmiths as part of the sacrificial offerings.

Another important festival is “Hao Xi Zao” (好希早), the New Rice Festival, celebrated in the seventh or eighth month of the lunar calendar when the grains are ready to be harvested. The Jino people gather new crops, vegetables, and beans, slaughter chickens, and invite relatives and friends to join in the feast. This festival includes singing and dancing that often lasts through the night.

Coming-of-Age Ceremony

The coming-of-age ceremony is one of the most significant rites of passage for the Jino people. It marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. Boys typically undergo the ceremony at 15 or 16, while girls participate at 13 or 14 years old. After undergoing a formal and serious ritual, the individual is allowed to wear adult clothing, carry a cotton cloth, and join the Rao Kao (男的) or Mi Kao (米考) groups. These groups grant them the official status of community members.

During the ceremony, parents present their children with a full set of agricultural tools and adult clothing, and girls are styled with adult hairstyles. Elders lead the community in chanting epic songs, recounting the hardships of labor and life, and passing down traditional moral values.

Marriage

The Jino people (基诺族) practice a form of monogamy with traces of group marriage, historically influenced by the dual marriage system and remnants of polyandry.

Marriage typically occurs within the same clan in the same village. However, with the expansion of village communities and the development of society, by the early 20th century, marriages began to extend outside the clan, and inter-clan marriages became more common. Prior to marriage, men and women from different clans are free to socialize and engage in sexual relationships. Children born out of wedlock live with their mothers and are not socially discriminated against, although some may be adopted by uncles.

Before marriage, both men and women must go through the “Coming-of-Age Ceremony” (成人礼) and join the “Rao Kao” (饶考) or “Mi Kao” (米考) groups, which grant them the right to interact with the opposite sex and form romantic relationships. Some villages even have designated spaces for young men and women to meet privately.

Romantic relationships often go through three stages:

1. “Ba Piao” (巴漂) – The secret courting phase,

2. “Ba Bao” (巴宝) – When the relationship becomes public,

3. “Ba Li” (巴里) – The cohabitation stage.

Once a couple has cohabited and their relationship is stable, if the man wakes up one morning and voluntarily sweeps the floor, carries water, starts the fire, and cooks, it signals his desire to marry the woman. The man’s father or uncle then proposes to the woman’s parents, and the wedding is arranged. After marriage, women are expected to remain faithful, and divorce is rare in Jino culture.

Funeral Customs

The Jino funeral customs are deeply tied to respect for the deceased and ancestral worship. Upon death, a Jino person is buried in a public cemetery after being placed in a simple wooden coffin, which is made from a hollowed-out log. The grave is not marked with a tombstone, reflecting the belief that the soul should be free to return to the ancestors.

Items the deceased cherished in life, such as tools and personal belongings, are buried with them as burial goods. Wealthier individuals may even include a copper pot or silver coins. A small thatched hut is constructed over the grave, and a bamboo table is placed inside, where the family offers meals to the deceased three times a day for a period of one to three years. In some cases, family members may guard the tomb for several months as a sign of respect and remembrance. The soul of the deceased is believed to eventually reunite with the spirits of ancestors in the sacred land known as “Si Jie Zhuo Mi” (司杰卓米).

Several years later, when the grave needs to be cleared, the original thatched hut is dismantled, and the body may be exhumed and scattered in the mountains. This practice reflects the limited space in public cemeteries and the belief that expanding burial grounds could bring misfortune to the living. People who die violently or are minors are not allowed to be buried in the community’s cemetery. Those who join the village after their burial cannot be interred in the central cemetery, but are instead placed at the edges. Pregnant women or mentally ill individuals are typically cremated.

A year after the death of a father, the children are required to build a new house as a symbolic offering to the father. When the new home is completed, a grand ritual called “Shang Xin Fang” (上新房) is held to honor the father’s spirit.