Manchu Ethnic Minority

Population Distribution

The Manchu (满族) people are distributed across China, with the majority residing in Liaoning (辽宁), Hebei (河北), Heilongjiang (黑龙江), Jilin (吉林), Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (内蒙古自治区), and Beijing (北京). Smaller communities are found in Xinjiang (新疆), Gansu (甘肃), Ningxia (宁夏), Shandong (山东), Hubei (湖北), Guizhou (贵州), and in major cities such as Xi'an (西安), Chengdu (成都), Guangzhou (广州), and Fuzhou (福州).

The Manchu people are hardworking, brave, and intelligent. They are known for their ability to absorb and innovate with foreign cultures. Over a long history, they have developed distinctive customs, many of which are similar to those of the Han Chinese (汉族), yet they retain numerous unique Manchu traits.

According to the China Statistical Yearbook 2021 (中国统计年鉴-2021), the Manchu population in China stands at 10,423,303 people.

Key Facts

• Population: 10.42 million

• Alternate Names: Manzhou, Manren, Banner People (满洲族, 满人, 旗人)

• Primary Languages: Manchu (满语), Mandarin Chinese (普通话) and various Chinese dialects

• Writing System: Manchu script (满文), Chinese characters (汉字)

• Religions: Shamanism (萨满教), Buddhism (佛教), with most not adhering to any religion

Population Distribution in Mainland China

Due to historical reasons, the Manchu population is scattered across the country, with the largest concentration found in Liaoning Province. Other significant communities reside in Jilin, Heilongjiang, Hebei, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Xinjiang, Gansu, and Shandong, as well as major cities like Beijing, Tianjin (天津), Chengdu, Xi'an, Guangzhou, and Yinchuan.

The Manchu people’s settlement pattern in China is characterized by large dispersed populations with small concentrated areas. Several Manchu Autonomous Counties (满族自治县) have been established, including Xiuyan, Fengcheng, Xinbin, Qinglong, Fengning, and Kuancheng counties, as well as numerous Manchu towns (满族乡).

Population Breakdown

According to the 2010 Chinese Population Census (2010年中国人口普查), the Manchu population numbered 10,410,585, making up approximately 0.77% of China's total population, and 9.28% of the minority population. The largest populations are in Liaoning (5.33 million), making up 51.26% of the Manchu population, and Hebei (2.12 million), representing 20.35% of the Manchu population.

In Liaoning, Hebei, and Heilongjiang, the Manchu make up more than 50% of the local minority population. In Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, Ningxia, Shaanxi, and Shanxi, the Manchu are the second-largest ethnic group, while in Henan, Shandong, and Anhui, they are the third-largest.

The Manchu population totals 10,387,958 according to the 2010 census, ranking second among China's 55 ethnic minorities.

Overseas Population

While there is a Manchu diaspora abroad, detailed population statistics are not available.

History of the Manchu People

The Manchu (满族) people have a rich and complex history that spans several centuries. Originally known as the Jurchen (女真) people, they lived in the region now known as Northeast China. They became historically significant in the early 17th century when they established the Qing Dynasty (清朝), the last imperial dynasty of China, which ruled from 1644 to 1912.

The Manchu people emerged from the tribes of Northeast China, particularly the Jurchen who had formed a significant part of the Liao (辽) and Jin (金) dynasties. Under the leadership of Nurhaci (努尔哈赤), the Jurchens unified and adopted the name Manchu, founding the Later Jin Dynasty (后金) in 1616. The Manchu military prowess and strategic alliances allowed them to gradually expand and overthrow the Ming Dynasty (明朝) in 1644, taking control of China and establishing the Qing Dynasty.

During the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu rulers implemented policies that ensured the preservation of their distinct identity while integrating elements of Han Chinese (汉族) culture. The Manchu maintained control over the central government and military, while many aspects of Han Chinese culture, such as Confucianism and the civil service examination system, were adopted to consolidate power.

Organizational System of the Manchu

The Manchu people had a highly organized and hierarchical society, which was crucial to their success in governing such a vast empire. The Qing Dynasty's organizational structure was modeled on Manchu traditions, including their military and administrative systems.

Banner System (旗制)

One of the most important organizational structures was the Banner System (旗制). The Manchu army and society were divided into Eight Banners (八旗), each represented by a color and corresponding to a specific group of people. These Eight Banners formed the backbone of the Manchu military force, which was instrumental in the conquest and maintenance of the Qing Dynasty.

The Banner System was not only a military structure but also a social and administrative one, organizing the population into groups based on their banner affiliation. The banners were initially created by Nurhaci as a means to consolidate power and control over the various tribes and communities in Northeast China. Over time, the Eight Banners became the core of the Qing political and military elite.

Manchu Hierarchical Structure

The Manchu society was highly hierarchical, with a clear division between the Manchu aristocracy and the common people. The Emperor (皇帝) was at the top of the hierarchy, followed by the Imperial Family and the Manchu nobility. Below them were the commoners, who were further divided into military and civilian ranks.

The Qing Dynasty rulers emphasized loyalty and discipline, and the Manchu people were expected to adhere strictly to societal roles. The Manchu had a unique system of governance that balanced both military and civilian leadership, with key figures often holding dual positions of authority.

In terms of governance, the Manchu emperors created a system that was deeply influenced by Confucianism, yet it also incorporated elements of Manchu traditions, ensuring that their distinctive cultural heritage was preserved.

The Manchu organizational system, with its Banner System and strict social hierarchy, played a crucial role in maintaining Qing rule over China for nearly three centuries.

Language

The Manchu (满族) people have their own language and script. Manchu belongs to the Altaic language family and the Manchu-Tungusic branch. The Manchu script was created in the late 16th century. During the Song Dynasty (宋) and Jin Dynasty (金), the Jurchen (女真) people, the predecessors of the Manchu, had their own script, which was based on Chinese characters and functioned as a syllabic writing system, but it has since been lost.

After Nurhaci (努尔哈赤) unified the tribes of Northeast China in the late 16th century, he adopted the Mongolian script to represent the phonetics of Manchu and developed a new writing system known as Old Manchu (老满文). Later, during the reign of Hong Taiji (皇太极), additional marks were added to the Mongolian script to distinguish different sounds, leading to the creation of the New Manchu Script (有圈点满文).

Manchu was used as an official language throughout the Qing Dynasty (清朝) and was once widely used across the country. It left behind a large number of archives and documents, making it a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation. However, after the mid-Qing period, Manchu gradually declined in usage, with the Manchu people mostly adopting Mandarin Chinese. By the 1980s, Manchu was nearly extinct, with the language still spoken by a few elderly people in remote areas of Northeast China and Xinjiang. Despite its decline, Manchu left a significant mark on the Chinese language, especially in the dialects spoken in Northeast China and Beijing, where many Manchu words and pronunciations remain today.

Surnames

The Manchu people use the term Hala (哈拉) for surnames, which are rich and complex, reflecting the cultural characteristics of the ethnicity. Originally, a Hala referred to a Mukun (家族), or a family clan. As populations grew and families branched out or were relocated, new Mukun were formed from the original ones. Typically, each Mukun had only one Hala, though in some cases, multiple Mukun shared the same Hala. Historical records show that there are over 600 Manchu surnames, making it the second largest ethnic surname group in China, after the Han (汉族).

The Manchu surname system has its origins in totem worship, which is common to many ancient ethnic groups. Over time, Manchu surnames have evolved, with two primary methods of naming: based on residence and based on tribe. Initially, Jurchen families used only personal names, without surnames, but later, under the influence of the Mongols, they adopted surnames. After the Qing Dynasty entered the capital in 1644, many Manchu people adopted Han Chinese customs and began using Han surnames.

For example, some Manchu families translated their surnames into Chinese, such as the Gua’erjia (瓜尔佳) clan, which became Guan (关), and the Niu Huru (纽呼禄) clan, which was translated as Lang (狼). Additionally, many Manchu families simply shortened their surnames to one character, using the first syllable of their Manchu surname in Chinese. Despite efforts by the Qing Dynasty to stop these practices, by the time of the Xinhai Revolution (辛亥革命) in 1911, most Manchu people had adopted Han Chinese surnames or changed their surnames to obscure their Manchu heritage, leaving many unaware of their ancestral surname.

Archery and Horsemanship

The Manchu people, like their ancestors who lived in the mountainous and forested regions, developed a strong tradition in archery and horsemanship. These skills became deeply embedded in their customs and daily life. In rural areas, Manchu children still use traditional rocking cradles, a practice that has been passed down through generations. At birth, a bow and arrows are hung outside the home, symbolizing the child's future as a skilled archer. By the age of six or seven, boys begin practicing archery with wooden bows, and as they grow older, they start riding horses and hunting with arrows in the forests.

For Manchu women, horsemanship and archery are as important as for men. When a girl marries, she must bring a bow, arrows, and a deerskin outfit as part of her dowry. During the wedding, the groom must shoot three arrows upon entering the house, symbolizing strength and vitality. Manchu folk songs and nursery rhymes often reflect the deep connection the Manchu people have to their hunting culture.

Clothing

The Manchu (满族) clothing style is distinct and has deep cultural significance. Men traditionally wore their hair in a topknot at the back of their heads, and after the Qing Dynasty (清朝) entered the capital, this hairstyle was enforced across the country, becoming the standard for all ethnic groups including the Manchu, Han, and Mongol peoples.

For women, their hairstyle started similarly to boys during childhood, but as they grew older, they would wear one or two braids at the back. Upon marriage, they would part their hair and wear a tiara (钿子). In everyday life, Manchu women would style their hair into various buns, such as the frame head or the two-ring style. They also wore earrings, with a specific style involving three hoops in one ear.

Men’s robes were slit on both sides for ease of riding and archery, and they wore a belt around the waist. The arrow sleeves (满语：哇哈), a distinctive feature, were narrow sleeves with a half-moon-shaped end that resembled a horseshoe. These sleeves were rolled up in everyday wear but would be extended in the winter during hunting or warfare to cover the hands and provide warmth. The Manchu also used this gesture as part of formal ceremonies during the Qing Dynasty.

For young women, wide flag dresses (旗袍) were common, often paired with flowered shoes. Wealthy individuals in earlier times typically wore clothing made of silk, while poorer people used roe deer skins for their garments. Over time, Manchu clothing became more formalized, with the Han Chinese and Manchu clothing styles becoming more similar after the Qing Dynasty entered China. The Manchu dress has since evolved into the iconic Qipao (旗袍), which is now a representative traditional attire for Chinese women.

Cuisine

The Manchu cuisine is rich and varied, and is often referred to as a blend of Manchu and Han food cultures. The most famous fusion dish is the Man-Han Imperial Feast (满汉全席), a grand banquet that blends the flavors of both cultures, with dishes using rare ingredients like monkey head mushrooms, bear paws, ginseng, and deer antlers, most of which come from the Northeast region of China.

This feast became established during the Qianlong Emperor's (乾隆帝) reign and has been passed down for over 200 years. The Man-Han Feast was particularly renowned in Yangzhou, where, according to historical records, it featured over 100 different dishes.

In everyday life, Manchu people enjoyed a variety of snacks and light foods. They often ate millet and yellow rice, with dumplings (哎吉格饽) being a popular food during festivals. On the evening of Lunar New Year's Eve, Manchu families would traditionally prepare boiled pork and roast pork, accompanied by sweets such as Sachima (萨其玛), which are still popular today. Today, Northern China’s dumplings, hot pots, sauerkraut, and Beijing pastries all have roots in Manchu food culture.

Housing

The Manchu traditional homes were surrounded by low walls, with a screen wall (影壁) inside the courtyard. The typical layout consisted of three rooms: the west room (西上屋), which was the main living space; the middle room, which was the kitchen; and the east room (东下屋). The front gate faced south. In larger homes, the inner room (里屋) featured a heated platform (炕), where the west side was considered the most prestigious, often reserved for the family’s ancestral altar. The north side of the room was the largest, while the south side was the smallest. Guests would typically stay on the west side, while the elderly often slept on the north side. Younger family members would sleep on the south side.

Many Manchu homes were designed with south-facing windows for warmth in winter and ventilation during the summer.

Marriage

In traditional Manchu culture, marriage was of great importance and was often arranged by the family. Early marriages were common, as Manchu men were often sent away for military service, and early childbirth was encouraged. Marriages among the nobility were often arranged by the government, with officials designated by the imperial court to select marriage partners.

For commoners, the clan leader would often choose a partner for the young couple. Matchmakers would go to the prospective bride’s family with an offer, typically making three visits, bringing a bottle of wine each time. On the third visit, the parents would decide whether the match was successful. The saying “Three bottles of wine” (成不成，三瓶酒) reflects this custom.

If the match was approved, the bride’s family would request a dowry (彩礼) from the groom, which included pigs, wine, cabinets, clothes, and jewelry. All of the bride’s dowry would belong to her, becoming her personal property. The wedding process was complex, with numerous rituals such as betrothal, bride price, engagement, dowry delivery, and wedding ceremony. After marriage, the bride would sit on the marriage bed (炕) for a day, called “sitting for happiness” (坐福). At night, the couple would walk around a table with two wine pots, drinking together after completing three laps.

Etiquette

The Manchu (满族) people place great importance on etiquette and customs. Historically, younger generations would pay respects to their elders every three days with a small gesture and every five days with a more formal one. The greeting involved bowing and, for men, bending at the waist with the right hand extended and the left hand supporting the knee, while women would squat with both hands on their knees.

When encountering older individuals on the street, even strangers, they would bow and say “Saiyin” (赛音), meaning "good," in Manchu. If riding horses, they would dismount to make way for elders, only remounting once the elders had passed. When meeting distant relatives, regardless of gender, a greeting involving an embrace and a face-to-face gesture was customary.

Memorials

The Manchu funeral traditions have evolved over time. Influenced by geographical and environmental factors, early Manchu funeral rites were relatively simple, with various forms of burial such as sky burial, earth burial, animal burial, tree burial, water burial, and cremation. Before the Qing Dynasty entered China, the Manchu practiced cremation, but from the latter years of the Shunzhi Emperor (顺治帝) onwards, influenced by Han Chinese culture, most Manchu adopted coffin burials. This led to the creation of distinctive funeral customs within Manchu culture.

Before the Qianlong Emperor's (乾隆帝) reign, soldiers stationed in distant regions would return the deceased and their family members to Beijing for burial. Cremation continued in some regions, with the ashes brought back to Beijing. After the Qianlong Era, soldiers were permitted to bury the deceased locally, and burial became more common.

In earlier times, some Manchu nobles practiced human sacrifice, which was later replaced by cutting the hair of servants or burning effigies of them. Rural areas had restrictions on where people could die; for instance, it was forbidden for people to die on the west or north side of the heating bed (炕), as these were considered sacred areas for living family members. When a person passed away, a flagpole was erected at the west side of the courtyard, about 1.5 meters tall, and a cloth banner would be hung. The banner would have black fabric at the top and bottom, with red fabric in the middle. During the funeral, relatives would rush to snatch pieces of the cloth, believing it would protect them from evil spirits and bad dreams.

In Guangzhou, the Manchu cemetery still preserves some traditional burial practices.

Traditional Festivals

Throughout the long history of the Manchu people, they have developed unique seasonal traditions. Since the Bohai Kingdom (渤海国) era, festivals such as Chinese New Year (春节) and Dragon Boat Festival (端午节) have been celebrated. While these customs were influenced by Han culture, the Manchu people retained distinct characteristics, such as gathering mugwort and making mugwort cakes during the Dragon Boat Festival, wearing longevity locks, and performing archery to honor the heavens.

After the Qing Dynasty entered China, Manchu seasonal festivals merged with Han customs but still maintained their unique features. For instance, during Chinese New Year, Manchu people eat dumplings and Sachima (萨其玛), and their Dragon Boat Festival is focused on promoting health rather than honoring Qu Yuan (屈原).

Chinese New Year (春节)

The Chinese New Year is one of the most important traditional festivals for the Manchu people. Prior to the festival, they make Sachima, put up red couplets, window decorations, and display Fu (福) characters. At midnight, they distribute spirit papers (神纸), and young men from the family visit the homes of relatives to bid farewell to the old year.

At midnight on New Year's Eve, everyone eats dumplings, symbolizing a prosperous year ahead. A copper coin is hidden in one dumpling (wealthier families may use gold coins or jewels), and whoever finds it is thought to have good luck for the year. During the festival, lantern poles, as tall as 2 meters, are erected in the courtyard, decorated with pine branches and red lanterns that remain lit until the sixth day of the lunar new year.

At the imperial court, lanterns were displayed starting from the 24th day of the 12th lunar month until the third day of the second lunar month.

Lantern Festival (元宵节)

The Lantern Festival is held on the 15th of January and is known as the Festival of Lanterns. In addition to hanging colorful lanterns, Manchu people also create ice lanterns. The main event of the festival is the lantern display rather than eating the traditional rice dumplings. In Manchu-dominated towns, streets would be lined with thousands of intricately designed lanterns. In rural areas, there was also the custom of steaming flour lanterns on the night of the Lantern Festival.

In the late Qing Dynasty, the Guangzhou Lantern Market (羊城灯市) became famous, and the Manchu-crafted lanterns were particularly noted for their brilliance, making it a distinctive local specialty.

Traditional Manchu Festivals

The Manchu people's seasonal customs are largely similar to Han traditions, though they retain several unique features. On the 16th of January, Manchu women in the North practice ice sleeping and rolling on the ice as a symbol of dispelling bad luck. On the 25th of January, they celebrate adding grain to the granary, praying for a bountiful harvest. On February 2nd, they celebrate “Dragon Head Raising Day” (龙抬头) to pray for good weather for the crops.

On March 3rd, the Manchu people participate in Horse Jumping (开马绊). During Qingming Festival, they honor their ancestors by visiting tombs and offering willow branches at the gravesite. During the Dragon Boat Festival, they go on outdoor excursions, play games, and race swings.

Recently, Manchu communities across the country have also celebrated the “Golden Award Festival” (颁金节). This festival commemorates Emperor Huang Taiji's (皇太极) decision to officially name the ethnic group "Manchu" on October 13th, 1635. It is celebrated as the Manchu National Day to mark the Manchu's naming and the formation of the Manchu ethnic identity.

Beliefs

The Manchu people once practiced Shamanism, a belief system that includes natural worship, totem worship, ancestor worship, and idol worship. The word Shaman is derived from the Tungusic languages and means "mad person," which was later translated into Chinese as "witch" or "shaman." The gods worshipped by the Manchu are numerous and diverse, and their methods of sacrifice also varied based on social status, region, and family. In the early years of the Qing Dynasty, the shamans in the royal court were often women from the Aisin Gioro (爱新觉罗) clan who were skilled in the dialect and served as shaman wives, assisting the emperor with religious ceremonies. These royal shamans recited prayers in Manchu to honor the gods, a practice distinct from the folk shamans, who also cured illnesses.

In the Ningguta and Aihui areas in Northeast China, Manchu people maintained Shamanism until the founding of New China. Folk shamans were classified into two groups: one who performed rituals to treat illnesses, foretell the future, and drive away evil spirits, and another who oversaw ancestor worship. In rural areas, Manchu farmers believed in shamanism rather than conventional medicine. A shaman would first attempt to heal by performing rituals and only seek medical help if those failed. During rituals, shamans would wear a pointed hat with colorful paper strips, dance, and chant prayers while striking a drum. They would often dance for three days and nights to invoke the spirits.

The Manchu home had a special place to honor ancestors, called an "ancestor board," or "Wo Che Ku" (倭车库) in Manchu. It was placed on the western wall of the main room, where ceremonial knives and arrows were kept as symbols of ancestral tools. The family would offer sacrifices such as yellow millet cakes and other offerings, followed by prayers and the performance of shamanic dances. This practice was considered essential in maintaining the family’s well-being and prosperity.

In the Manchu homes, families would observe a special pole, known as the "Solun Pole" (索伦杆), with a pig's neck bone at the top, as part of a traditional ritual. After slaughtering a pig, the organs were placed in a hollow at the base of the pole for crows to eat. If the crows consumed it within three days, it was considered an omen of good luck.

Artistic Culture

Song and Dance

The Manchu people have a rich tradition of song and dance, much of which evolved from hunting and combat activities. After the Qing Dynasty entered China, dance performances were dominated by strong individuals, with Manchu songs being accompanied by flutes and drums. The dances varied from the "Xiqi Dance" (喜起舞), where dancers wore leopard skins and sang Manchu songs, to the "Longqing Dance" (隆庆舞), which involved half the dancers impersonating animals like tigers or leopards, and the other half riding mock horses, simulating a hunt or chase. These dances were particularly popular during festive gatherings, where participants would perform coordinated steps and chant in unison.

The Qing Dynasty also saw a fusion of Manchu, Mongolian, and Han Chinese dance forms, especially within the imperial court. The cultural integration resulted in the creation of a diverse dance repertoire performed during court rituals and celebrations.

Traditional Sports

Manchu traditional sports were primarily related to hunting skills, such as wrestling, horse jumping, camel jumping, and ice skating. Horse jumping involved leaping over a running horse, while camel jumping was the technique of jumping onto the back of a camel. Both were essential combat training exercises, designed to help Manchu warriors leap onto enemy cavalry during battle.

One of the most famous sports was ice skating, which was an essential military skill for the Eight Banners (八旗) soldiers. In the Qianlong Emperor’s (乾隆帝) reign, an annual ice-skating inspection took place on the Beihai (北海) lake in Beijing, where up to 1,600 soldiers from all banners participated in a massive display of skill. This was one of the largest ice-skating events in the world at the time and featured not only races but also artistic performances, including figure skating, ice football, and archery on ice.

Traditional wooden ice skates, used by Manchu soldiers, can still be found in the Beijing countryside today.

Education

The Manchu people have always placed great emphasis on cultural education. Since the Qing Dynasty (清朝), as ethnic relations continued to evolve, the development of Manchu education also made significant strides. The Manchu education system reached historical milestones in terms of accessibility and variety. Educational institutions under the State Academy (国子监), Zongrenfu (宗人府), and Jueluo School (觉罗学) were established to manage the education of Manchu royal family members and descendants. In addition to the capital, Manchu schools were also set up in the Eight Banners (八旗) military regions and in the northeast, where Manchu culture originated. Regular Manchu citizens primarily attended Eight Banners schools (八旗义学), which were managed by local officials. Children above the age of ten attended school, with many educational institutions also offering Manchu language and script, along with military training in archery and horseback riding.

Education was spread widely throughout the Eight Banners regions, and even rural Manchu children from poorer families had access to these schools. Initially, the education system was divided into Manchu and Han Chinese exams, but later, the two systems merged. The widespread education system played a crucial role in the development of Manchu culture.

Literature

During the Qing Dynasty, a large number of encyclopedic books were compiled with state support, such as the "Imperial Collection of the Four Treasuries" (四库全书) in the Qianlong Emperor’s (乾隆帝) reign and the "Collection of Ancient and Modern Books" (古今图书集成) in the Kangxi Emperor’s (康熙帝) reign. These works left a lasting legacy of Chinese culture.

The Manchu people also produced a significant amount of literature. Notable Manchu texts include works compiled by the Kangxi Emperor, such as "Essentials of Mathematics" (数理精蕴) and "General Survey of the Imperial Carriages" (皇舆全览图), which had considerable scientific value. In the field of science and medicine, Manchu authors made great contributions. For example, Yongqi, the fifth son of the Qianlong Emperor, had significant achievements in geometry, with his methods closely resembling modern geometry.

Notable Manchu works also include texts such as "Manchu Old Archives" (满文老档) and "Records of Foreign Lands" (异域录) by Tu Li Chen, which were highly regarded for their documentation of Manchu history. Other well-known works include "The Book of Clear and Simple Manchu" (清文启蒙), "A Guide to Empty Words" (虚字指南), and many Manchu translations of Chinese classics, such as "The Romance of the Three Kingdoms" (三国演义), "Dream of the Red Chamber" (红楼梦), and "The Golden Lotus" (金瓶梅).

In addition to Manchu literature, Han Chinese literature played a significant role in Manchu culture. Nalan Xingde (纳兰性德), a famous poet, wrote works like "Drinking Water Poetry Collection" (饮水词集), which are celebrated for their elegant style. Cao Xueqin (曹雪芹), a Manchu author, wrote "Dream of the Red Chamber", which has been hailed as a pinnacle of Chinese classical literature and is considered one of the greatest novels in world literature.

Zhao Zhen (昭梿), a Qing Dynasty nobleman, wrote "Miscellaneous Records of the Laughing Pavilion" (啸亭杂录), documenting events, ceremonies, and figures from the early Qing period. Fucha Dunchong (富察敦崇) wrote "The Customs and Festivals of Beijing" (燕京岁时记), which recorded local traditions in Beijing, and has been translated into several foreign languages.

In the late Qing Dynasty, female authors emerged, such as Xilin Taiqing (西林太清), who wrote "Collection of Heavenly Tower" (天游阁集), a work praised for its artistic value. Other notable female authors include Ke Deshi (科德氏), author of "Piano Scores" (琴谱), and Wanyan Yuegu (完颜悦姑), known for "Idle Floral Musings" (花堁闲吟).

From the mid-Qing Dynasty onward, Manchu communities developed a unique style of performance poetry known as "Qingyin Zidi Shu" (清音子弟书), which combined singing and drumming. This style, popular in Beijing and Shenyang, was beloved by the common people. Additionally, folk songs such as "Eight-Corner Drum" (八角鼓) continued to be widely performed until the end of the Qing Dynasty.