Pumi Ethnic Minority

The Pumi ethnic group is one of the ancient and culturally rich minorities in China. The Pumi language belongs to the Qiangic branch of the Tibeto-Burman group, part of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The Pumi people do not have their own script and generally use Chinese characters.

Main Settlements

The Pumi people primarily reside in the northwestern part of Yunnan Province, particularly in Lanping County (兰坪县), Ninglang County (宁蒗县), Yulong County (玉龙县), and Weixi County (维西县) in Diqing Prefecture (迪庆州). Other areas where the Pumi live include Yun County (云县), Fengqing County (凤庆县), Zhongdian, and several counties in Sichuan Province, such as Muli County (木里), Yanyuan County (盐源), and Jiulong County (九龙).

Religion and Beliefs

The Pumi people follow a variety of religious beliefs, including Bön (苯教), Hanguiguo (韩归教), and Tibetan Buddhism (藏传佛教).

Population

According to the China Statistical Yearbook-2021, the Pumi population in China is approximately 45,012 people.

Ethnonym and Other Names

The name “Pumi” is a transliteration from the Pumi language and means “White people.” It is the self-designation of the group. The Pumi also have various local names for themselves, such as “Puyingmi” in Lanping, Lijiang, and Yongsheng; “Purimi” or “Peimi” in Ninglang. The word “mi” means “people” in Pumi, and “Pu,” “Pei,” or “Purimi” all refer to the color white, which symbolizes good fortune and prosperity in their culture.

Other ethnic groups have different names for the Pumi. The Tibetan and Naxi peoples call them “Ba” or “Bo,” the Yi people call them “Wozhu,” and the Lisu people refer to them as “Liuliupa.” In historical Chinese literature, the Pumi were referred to as “Bajua” or “Xifan” (西番), a term that dates back to the Jin Dynasty (晋朝). During the Tang Dynasty, the term Xifan was used to refer to the Tibetan Empire, or the Tibetan-related groups.

In October 1960, the Chinese government officially recognized the name “Pumi” based on the ethnic group’s self-preference.

History

The Pumi ethnic group traces its origins to the ancient nomadic Di-Qiang peoples. According to historical records, the Pumi people were formerly known as “Xifan” (西番) and are believed to have descended from the ancient Di-Qiang groups. Originally, they lived in the southern part of Gansu Province and eastern Qinghai Province, before migrating to the eastern regions of the Tibetan Plateau, gradually moving south along the Jinsha River and Yalong River. By the 7th century, they had settled in areas that are now Sichuan‘s Yuexi, Mianning, Hanyuan, Jiulong, and Shiyan. These regions were some of the primary areas inhabited by the Pumi people during the Tang and Song Dynasties.

The “Bailang” (白狼) Qiang were a subgroup of the Southern Qiang people. Their self-designation, “Bailang,” referred to the “Bailang” tribe, known in ancient texts as “Ze” (笮) during the Song Dynasty. This “Bailang” group formed the foundation for the Pumi ethnic identity.

Origins in Pumi Mythology

According to Pumi legend, their ancestors originally lived on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and in the snow-capped areas of the Kunlun Mountains (昆仑山). They were a nomadic people who eventually migrated south to the Ganzi area, then moved west to the Da Du River (大渡河), and later settled in regions such as Sichuan‘s Qionglai Mountain. Today, Pumi elders still sing the “Gongga Ridge Song” to honor their ancestors and the places where their ancestors once lived.

During funeral rites, Pumi people often refer to places like Batang, Litang, and Gongga Mountain (贡嘎山) as the spiritual resting places of their ancestors. In Ninglang County, the ancestral spirit paths for the Pumi are said to lead north through Sichuan, all the way back to the ancient homeland of their people.

Historical Records

From the Tang and Song Dynasties, there are numerous references to the “Xifan” people in Chinese historical texts. The Song History mentions that “Xifan” people traded fine horses in the market, indicating early trade relations between the Pumi people and other ethnic groups, including the Han.

During the Yuan Dynasty, the Pumi were considered an important part of the empire’s military forces, with many Xifan tribes enlisted to fight in Yunnan. After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, the groups that had remained in the northwestern Yunnan region formed the core of what would become the Pumi people. In the 13th century, the Pumi began to settle in areas like Ninglang, Lijiang, Weixi, and Lanping, marking the end of their nomadic lifestyle.

Politics and Social Organization

Traditionally, the Pumi people organized themselves in clans. Clan organizations played a significant role in both religious activities and social functions, particularly during funerary rituals. The Pumi people held their ancestors in great esteem, and at funerals, the spirits of the deceased were believed to return to their ancestral homes.

Clan-Based Community Structure

Each Pumi village was typically made up of several clans, each with its own set of gods, such as mountain gods, tree gods, and dragon pond gods, and all clans participated in communal ceremonies. These clans often shared a common burial ground, forests, uncultivated land, and pastures. Major events in the community, such as weddings or festivals, required the collective participation of all members.

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, and following democratic reforms, the Pumi people saw the transformation of their traditional clan-based structure. While the clan ownership of public property was abolished, communal burial sites were retained.

Political Changes

The People’s Liberation Army liberated the Lijiang, Lanping, and Ninglang regions in 1949, marking a significant turning point for the Pumi people. They entered a new socialist era, where land reforms and other policies significantly improved their living standards.

In the 1950s, Pumi leaders began to emerge in political roles, with some becoming prominent figures within the Pumi region. These leaders played an essential role in the political and social restructuring of the area.

Establishment of Autonomous Areas

To safeguard the political rights and cultural autonomy of the Pumi people, the Chinese government established ethnic townships in Pumi regions starting in 1954. The Lanping Bai-Pumi Autonomous County (兰坪白族普米族自治县) was formally established in November 1987. Additionally, the government has focused on the development and leadership training of Pumi cadres, ensuring greater representation and participation in the national political structure.

Agriculture

Farming Practices

The Pumi people primarily engage in agriculture, with over 90% of their arable land being mountainous, and very little irrigated land. Their farming practices largely exist in a subsistence economy, relying on natural conditions. Production techniques are similar to those of neighboring Han (汉), Naxi (纳西), and Lisu (傈僳) peoples, and most regions have adopted plow-based farming, though a few areas still practice traditional slash-and-burn techniques.

Iron tools such as plows, hoes, axes, knives, rakes, and sickles are commonly used in farming, with many of these tools imported from Han-dominant regions. The primary crops grown are corn, wheat, broad beans, barley, oats, qīngkǒng (青稞), and buckwheat. However, crop yields are generally low due to reliance on natural conditions. The local proverb, “Spring sowing on a hill, fall harvest in a basket,” reflects this low-productivity situation.

The Pumi practice crop rotation and intercropping, which involves growing multiple crops in the same plot of land each year. Fertilizers like green manure, barnyard manure, and ashes are commonly used. The agricultural work is organized within individual families, and there is a natural division of labor by age and gender. During busy farming seasons, there is a tradition of labor exchange, where community members assist each other with tasks without expecting payment.

Land System

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Pumi in regions like Lanping (兰坪) and Lijiang (丽江) were already in a feudal economic system. In these areas, much of the land was controlled by landlords and tusi (土司) (local chieftains). For instance, in Lanping‘s Yangshan Village (羊山村), three out of 34 families were landlords, owning almost half of the land. These landlords and the wealthier peasants controlled the majority of the land.

In the Ninglang (宁蒗) area, during the Ming Dynasty, there was still a feudal lord-based economic system under the control of the Naxi (纳西) chieftains. In addition to exploitation by their own ethnic landlords, the Pumi also had to pay numerous taxes and provide labor to the hereditary landlords of the Naxi people.

Livestock Farming

Role of Livestock

As a traditionally nomadic group, the Pumi have a long-standing relationship with livestock farming. Livestock plays a central role in their daily life and economy. The Pumi raise cattle (both yellow cattle and water buffalo), horses, mules, sheep, pigs, chickens, and dogs. The yellow cattle are used for labor and for food, while the water buffalo is used only for plowing. Horses and mules are primarily used for riding and carrying goods.

In addition to the direct use of livestock for food and labor, cattle and sheep are also used for sacrificial rites.

Gathering and Hunting

The Pumi also engage in traditional activities like gathering and hunting, which are integral parts of their social and economic life. Collecting firegrass (火草) is an ancient tradition, as it provides raw materials for making clothing. During the flax-spinning season, households send members to the mountains to gather this material for up to several months.

Hunting is generally done collectively in small groups, usually during the off-season. Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, hunting was heavily regulated under the rule of local chieftains, and hunters had to pay taxes and provide a portion of their catch to the landlord. Villages also had strict boundaries that could not be crossed, and the best parts of a hunt, like animal heads, front legs, leopard skins, and musk, were given to the local tusi.

Handicrafts

Traditional Crafts

The Pumi people’s handicrafts mainly revolve around processing agricultural products. They engage in textile production, leatherworking, iron tool manufacturing, brewing, oil extraction, and bamboo weaving. The Ninglang (宁蒗) region is particularly famous for its finely crafted wooden lacquer bowls.

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, there was no Pumi ironworking tradition, and the people relied on simple wood tools for their production. Textiles are made using flax, sheep wool, and yak hair, and the community uses simple wooden looms to make fabrics. “Sulima” (苏理玛) is a traditional Pumi liquor, considered a unique cultural product of the group.

Trade and Commerce

Traditional Trade Practices

Living primarily in mountainous areas with limited transportation infrastructure, the Pumi people did not have regular marketplaces or significant trade activities. Most of their goods were exchanged through itinerant merchants who brought essential supplies such as iron tools, cotton cloth, salt, and tea, trading for local products like Pumi-raised pigs and grains.

Over time, seasonal horse trading activities developed, with Pumi traders traveling as far north as Muli in Sichuan and Ganzi in Western Sichuan to trade. These commercial exchanges initially followed a barter system, but eventually, money was introduced, leading to imbalanced exchanges.

Population

As of the 2021 China Statistical Yearbook, the population of the Pumi people (普米族) in China is 45,012.

Culture

Beliefs

The Pumi people’s (普米族) primary religion is rooted in ancient indigenous beliefs. Some Pumi individuals also follow Taoism (道教) or Tibetan Buddhism (藏传佛教). The most significant indigenous religion among the Pumi is Dingba Religion (丁巴教). The spiritual leaders of this religion are called Dingba (丁巴), which is the traditional title for Pumi shamans. The religion was later renamed Kangui (韩规) or Shibi (师毕).

The highest deity in Dingba Religion (丁巴教) is Badinglamu (巴丁剌木), meaning the “Mother Tiger God of Pumi Land” (普米土地上的母虎神). She is an incarnation of the White-Browed Tiger (白额虎), the matriarchal ancestor worshipped by the Pumi people (普米族). The statue of Badinglamu (巴丁剌木) is a natural stone image located in a cave on Cizi Mountain (刺孜山) in Muli County (木里县), Sichuan Province (四川省). The Pumi people believe she is omnipotent and they pilgrimage in groups to seek her blessings for peace and prosperity.

Kangui (韩规), the religious leader, is chosen from certain Pumi families (普米族), who hold a high social status due to their connection with the divine. The position of Kangui (韩规) is passed down from father to son, and each Pumi household (普米家庭) has a fixed Kangui (韩规) who oversees religious ceremonies. The Kangui (韩规) must be familiar with the genealogy of the family’s followers and their ancestral paths to ensure proper communication with the gods.

Other indigenous beliefs practiced by the Pumi include natural worship (自然崇拜), ancestor worship (祖先崇拜), and polytheism (多神信仰). Major religious activities include worshiping mountain gods (山神), the dragon pond gods (龙潭神), the hearth gods (灶神), and ancestral deities (祖先神灵). The Pumi people (普米族) believe that natural disasters, the death of animals, illness, and misfortune are the result of divine forces, and so they invite shamans to sacrifice animals and offer prayers to remove misfortune and seek blessings.

Major Religious Practices

Worship of Mountain Gods

The Pumi people’s (普米族) most significant religious activity is the worship of the Mountain God (山神), which is an annual ceremony held in each village or clan. Every household also has its own Mountain God Tree (山神树). The public ceremony involves the whole village or clan and typically sacrifices a cow or sheep. The ceremony includes prayers, chanting, and offerings led by the shaman, with some regions like Ninglang (宁蒗) also performing a “shooting the mountain demon” ritual. On some occasions, people sleep in the sacred forest, singing and drinking wine, before returning the next day.

Worship of Dragon Pond Gods

The worship of Dragon Pond Gods (龙潭神), or mountain spring gods, is another major ceremony among the Pumi (普米族). The worship includes both public and private rituals. In addition to chanting, the ceremony features collective activities like bonfires, where elders sing ancient Pumi creation songs (普米族创世纪古歌), and the community engages in dancing, singing, and drinking.

Worship of Hearth Gods

The Pumi (普米族) also have daily rituals to honor their Hearth Gods (灶神), which are ancestors’ spirits. The hearth, a key part of Pumi households (普米家庭), features an iron tripod and an altar called Zangbala (藏巴拉). Before meals, a small amount of food and a few drops of tea are offered as a mark of respect to the ancestors. During major family events such as festivals, weddings, and the naming of children, the Pumi (普米族) perform these rites to honor their ancestors and the hearth.

Religious Texts

The Pumi people (普米族) have several sacred texts and songs that guide their religious practices. These include the soul guiding scriptures (指路经), spirit calling songs (招魂歌), mountain god songs (祭山神歌), dragon god songs (祭龙神歌), and sacrificial songs for the hearth gods (祭灶神歌). Most of these religious texts are passed down orally through song and chanting during ceremonies.

Language

The Pumi language (普米语) belongs to the Qiangic branch of the Tibeto-Burman (藏缅语族) language group, which is part of the Sino-Tibetan family (汉藏语系). The Pumi language has two primary dialects: the northern and southern varieties. The northern dialect is spoken in regions such as Muli (木里), Yanyuan (盐源), and other parts of Sichuan Province (四川省), while the southern dialect is found in areas like Ninglang (宁蒗), Lanping (兰坪), Lijiang (丽江), and Weixi (维西) in Yunnan Province (云南省). The dialects differ significantly, which can make communication between speakers of different dialects challenging.

There are three main types of Pumi (普米) language usage:

  1. Pure use: In certain areas like Hexi Township (河西乡) in Lanping County (兰坪县) and Wenquan (温泉乡) in Ninglang County (宁蒗县), Pumi speakers are fluent in their native language.

  2. Bilingual use: In some areas, Pumi language is used alongside Mandarin (汉语) or other ethnic languages.

  3. Pumi used by Tibetans: In regions such as Muli (木里) and Yanyuan (盐源) in Sichuan Province (四川省), Pumi language was historically the main language of communication.

The Pumi people (普米族) live in a multi-ethnic environment, and many men are also fluent in languages of neighboring ethnic groups such as the Yi (彝族), Bai (白族), Naxi (纳西族), and Han (汉族). Nowadays, younger generations often use Mandarin (汉语) as their primary means of communication.

The Pumi people (普米族) do not have a traditional script of their own. Historically, the Pumi in areas like Muli (木里) and Ninglang (宁蒗) used simple pictorial symbols. Additionally, a script based on Tibetan characters was used to transcribe Pumi religious texts, stories, and poems. This script, called the Kangui Script (韩规文), was mainly used by shamans, known as Kangui (韩规), for religious ceremonies. In modern times, Pumi people (普米族) predominantly use Chinese characters (汉字).

Architecture

The traditional housing of the Pumi people (普米族) is typically made of wood and earth, with some homes built in a Han-style (汉式) with tiled roofs. The most common type of house is the wooden log house (木楞房), a purely wooden structure with wooden planks forming the roof, and the walls made by stacking logs. This type of house is also known as Mulizi (木垒子).

Each house is typically surrounded by a courtyard. The main building, called the Zhengfang (正房), is rectangular or square in shape with four corner posts and a large central pillar known as the Qingtian Pillar (擎天柱), which is considered to be the sacred point of the house where the family’s spiritual essence resides. The outer structures, such as the Xiangfang (厢房) and Menlou (门楼), are typically two stories. The upper floor serves as living quarters, while the lower floor is used for storing livestock and goods.

Inside the Zhengfang (正房), there is usually a central hearth known as the Guozhuang (锅庄), which serves as the focal point of family life, where the family gathers to eat, socialize, and host guests. The Guozhuang originally referred to the three stones placed in a fire pit to hold a cooking pot, but has since evolved into an iron tripod. These tripods are valuable family heirlooms, passed down through generations.

The house has no windows, and natural light and ventilation are provided through sliding wooden planks in the roof. Outside the house, animal skulls, such as those of cattle, sheep, and wild animals, are hung to ward off evil spirits and ensure the prosperity of livestock.

Cuisine

The staple food of the Pumi people (普米族) is corn (玉米), although they also eat rice, wheat, barley, oats, and qingke (青稞). Vegetables are relatively limited, with common varieties including leafy greens, radishes, eggplants, and gourds. Traditional cooking methods include grilling baba (a type of flatbread), cooking meat in sheep intestines, and using wooden barrels for stewing food.

One of the most famous traditional dishes of the Pumi people (普米族) is tsampa (糌粑面), made by roasting grains, then grinding them into flour with a stone pestle. The flour is mixed with water to form a dough that can be eaten with hot or cold water. It’s often carried as a snack during work, hunting, or travel.

Pumi people (普米族) enjoy eating meat, especially pork (猪肉), mutton (羊肉), beef (牛肉), and chicken (鸡肉), with pork being the most common. Pork is often served as a stew, especially lard meat (猪膘肉) and cured pork (腊肉), which is a popular gift and a sign of wealth. The method of processing pork, called Pipa Meat (琵琶肉), involves salting and spicing the meat, then sewing up the skin to preserve it. The quantity of Pipa Meat (琵琶肉) in a household is a reflection of its wealth.

In recent years, due to the influence of Han culture (汉族文化), the Pumi people’s (普米族) culinary practices have evolved. In places like Lanping (兰坪), Weixi (维西), and Lijiang (丽江), Pumi families now brew their own liquor and have adopted Han-style (汉式) cooking methods. Weddings and other major events are celebrated with elaborate dishes, including four-course meals and eight-bowl dishes.

Tea is an important part of the Pumi diet, with at least three cups of tea consumed daily: morning tea, lunch tea, and evening tea. Some Pumi people (普米族) also enjoy butter tea (酥油茶), made by mixing butter, salt, and seeds with tea.

Pumi people (普米族) also enjoy alcoholic beverages such as shaojiu (烧酒) and shuijiu (水酒), a type of beer-like drink. During weddings, funerals, and gatherings, shuijiu (水酒) is served in cow horn cups (牛角杯), and there is a saying that “without alcohol, there is no conversation” (无酒不成话).

Clothing

Historically, Pumi (普米族) men would braid their hair, wear Tibetan-style hats (藏式帽), carry knives, drape themselves in woolen cloaks, wear earrings, and go barefoot. Women would cover their heads with braided hair, adorn themselves with jewelry, wear skirts, and go barefoot as well. Traditional Pumi clothing is most strongly preserved in the Ninglang (宁蒗) area. Before the age of 13, children of both genders would wear simple right-front buttoned hemp robes. Boys did not wear pants, and girls did not wear skirts.

For girls, a single braid would be left in front, adorned with red and green beads. Boys would also braid their hair, with braids at the front and sides of the head, but without beads. For adult men, clothing generally consisted of hemp short shirts, loose trousers, and long robes with embroidered woolen belts. Wealthy families would wear fur robes (氆氇长衫), while below the knee, the legs were wrapped in cloth or felt. Men typically carried knives at the waist, and went barefoot in summer or wore coarse leather shoes in winter. Older men often kept long hair, wrapped with silk threads at the crown of their head or shaved with a single tuft of hair left at the top. Headgear could include a cloth headscarf, woolen hat, or, more recently, a wide-brimmed hat adorned with gold edges.

Pumi (普米族) women’s clothing was more elaborate. In areas like Ninglang (宁蒗) and Yongsheng (永胜), women would wear long hair, preferring thicker braids, and their heads were wrapped in black cloth. Their clothing consisted of narrow-sleeved high-necked blouses, large-collared short shirts, and pleated skirts. In spring and autumn, they wore a lined, corduroy-style jacket, with gold or silver edging along the collar and edges, called “gold-edged clothes” (金边衣服), which were their most luxurious attire. Pumi women (普米族) also used colorful woolen ribbons to tie around their waist, wore sheepskin cloaks, and adorned themselves with silver chains, bracelets, rings, necklaces, and beaded headpieces.

In Lanping (兰坪), Pumi (普米族) women’s attire shows significant influence from the Bai (白族) people. Unmarried women wear headpieces made of multiple layers of embroidered cloth and beads, while married women opt for a black cloth headscarf. Some women, particularly those who valued decoration, braided their hair into 12 strands, decorated with 12 pairs of red and white beads. On special occasions such as holidays and weddings, women would wear decorative shoes or handmade pigskin shoes.

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Pumi clothing (普米族) began to be influenced by Han Chinese (汉族) styles. Women’s headwear became simpler, usually just a flower scarf, and they wore long tunic-like dresses with borders on the collars, cuffs, and hems. Men, except during festivals and ceremonies, typically wore Han-style clothing. With further development and influence from Western culture (西方文化), younger Pumi generations (普米族) increasingly adopted Western clothing styles, such as suits and jeans, as part of their everyday attire.

Family and Marriage

The Pumi (普米族) people have gone through a significant transformation in terms of family structure and marriage. They moved from a matrilineal society to a patrilineal one, transitioning from group marriage to monogamous marriages. Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the majority of Pumi communities had patriarchal family systems, with monogamy as the norm. In Ninglang (宁蒗) and Yongsheng (永胜), extended families, often patrilineal, were common, while other areas were characterized by nuclear families.

In patriarchal families, the father or eldest brother would lead the household, and major decisions were made collectively by the family. The Pumi (普米族) people’s social structure reflected a system where the male head of the family was respected by all members. Family property was typically inherited by male descendants, and sons would divide the property among themselves, with the youngest son inheriting the main house and taking care of elderly parents.

One unique feature of Pumi (普米族) society is the prominent role of the maternal uncle (舅父). The maternal uncle holds the same level of importance as the father in a family. Every year, nephews and nieces must visit their maternal uncle during the New Year and, once they reach the age of 13, they also present themselves to the maternal uncle, who will give gifts such as clothes, jewelry, and sometimes livestock. The maternal uncle also has a say in the marriage of his nieces and nephews, especially with regard to his niece, as he has the priority right to choose a suitor for her. After a woman marries, if she passes away, her death must be reported to her maternal family first. The maternal uncle will wear a white woolen garment to mourn her death, and the son-in-law must show great respect.

Pumi (普米族) communities where walking marriages (走婚) are practiced exist near Lugu Lake (泸沽湖) in Ninglang County (宁蒗县). In these communities, the family structure is matrilineal, and siblings from the same family, if not living separately, belong to the same household. Children born to sisters inherit the family’s property, while children born to brothers are not part of the family unit. In these matrilineal societies, individuals are considered part of the mother’s family, not the father’s.

The head of the matrilineal family is usually the mother or the eldest sister, who is regarded as the core figure of the family and is highly respected. The children are not seen as the personal property of the mother, but rather as members of the entire extended family, with the responsibility to care for the elders as they grow older. The maternal uncle treats his niece’s children as his own, further emphasizing the importance of maternal family ties.

The Pumi (普米族) people’s family titles for direct relatives are similar to those used by the Han Chinese (汉族) and Bai (白族), but the titles for extended family and cousins can be more ambiguous. For example, the terms for uncle and aunt are used interchangeably, as are terms for nephews and nieces. These naming conventions reflect the Pumi people’s (普米族) historical preference for clan marriages and the practice of prioritizing marriages within maternal families.

Literature

The Pumi (普米族) people have a rich tradition of folk literature, characterized by imaginative and vivid myths, legends, and tales, many of which are quite ancient. Some of their most well-known myths include The Flood Reaches Heaven (洪水朝天), Creation of the World (开天辟地), The Story of the Deer Catching (捉马鹿的故事), and Gadami (戛达米). These stories revolve around the creation of the world, the origins of humanity, and the migration of tribes. The Pumi people believe that after a great flood, the continuation of human life was either through sibling marriage or through the union of humans and deities.

Other stories explain important customs such as The Origin of Sheep Sacrifice (给羊子的来历), The Dog Saves Its Owner (狗救主人的故事), and The Origin of Hunting (打猎的来历). For example, the tale The Origin of Sheep Sacrifice explains the Pumi (普米族) culture of performing a grand sacrificial ceremony involving sheep. According to the myth, two brothers (or possibly father and son, or maternal uncle and nephew) embarked on a journey to retrieve scriptures. After nightfall in a desolate mountain area, the younger brother hid under the leaves of a poplar tree (柞树), while the elder brother was attacked by parasitic mosquitoes. To ensure his brother’s peace, the younger brother sacrificed a sheep, thus fulfilling the ritual.

The Pumi (普米族) people are also famous for their folk songs, which have a wide variety of melodies and are deeply connected to their daily lives. These songs can be divided into several categories:

  • Custom Songs (习俗歌): Sung during customary activities such as weddings, funerals, and other ceremonies. They preserve traditional musical styles and include songs like “Creation Song” (创世歌) and “Tribal Origin Song” (族源歌), often performed by elderly soloists.

  • Mountain Songs (山歌): Lyrical songs sung while herding, working, or traveling. These songs are mostly improvised and reflect themes such as love, nature, and labor. The Pumi (普米族) love songs, like The Herding Cow Song (放牧牛歌) and The Horse Caravan Song (马帮歌), are especially popular.

  • Sad Songs (苦情歌): These are solo songs, often about the hardships of life, such as the struggles of labor, the loneliness of married women, or the pain of separation from loved ones.

  • Joyful Songs (欢乐歌): Short songs expressing happiness, often celebrating the beauty of the homeland or aspirations for a better life. The “Gongga Ridge Song” (贡戛岭歌) is an example of such a joyful tribute to the homeland.

Since the Reform and Opening-up period and especially with the Western Development initiative, a new generation of Pumi (普米族) poets and writers has emerged, producing works such as the poem Ah, Lugu Lake (啊，泸沽湖) and the large-scale musical and dance epic Mother River (母亲河).

Education

Education is highly valued within the Pumi (普米族) community. The education of children focuses on work ethic, habit formation, and moral development. This tradition of valuing education is deeply rooted in Pumi culture and extends to the entire village.

A significant social milestone is the coming-of-age ceremony (成年礼), which is an important educational event for young boys and girls. The ceremony takes place when a child turns 13, typically on New Year’s Eve. Boys and girls are grouped by gender and spend the night celebrating. At dawn, they return home to participate in the traditional rites. For boys, the maternal uncle (舅父) leads them to the front left side of the fire pit (火塘), where they stand on bags of grain and pork fat, holding a knife in one hand and silver coins in the other, symbolizing bravery and wealth. For girls, the mother leads them to the right side of the fire pit, where they stand on the pork fat and grain, holding a piece of thread or earrings, and are then dressed in a hemp shirt and a white pleated skirt. After the ceremony, the young people become full members of the family and can participate in social and productive activities.

After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (新中国), the government set up primary schools in Pumi (普米族) areas. By the 1970s, every Pumi (普米族) village had an elementary school or a local branch of a junior high school.

Art and Culture

Music

In the Pumi (普米族) community, “duet singing” (对歌) is a common form of musical expression, especially during weddings, funerals, and festivals. Songs cover a variety of topics, including labor, marriage, death, and religion, with notable examples such as The Song of Mountain God (祭山神歌), The Mourning Song (挽歌), The Welcome Song (迎客歌), and The Sheep Herding Song (放羊歌). The format of the songs is often narrative, and the melodies range from short tunes to longer, more complex arrangements focused on themes of love, nature, and life’s hardships.

The Pumi (普米族) also enjoy singing songs from neighboring ethnic groups such as the Naxi (纳西族), Bai (白族), and Han (汉族), which further enriches their musical repertoire. Traditional instruments used for accompaniment include the flute (笛子), hulusi (葫芦笙), four-stringed instrument (四弦琴), mouth organ (口琴), and suona (唢呐).

Dance

Pumi (普米族) dances are diverse and deeply rooted in the community’s culture. They include both recreational and ceremonial dances, such as the “Cuo Cuo” (搓磋), “Hulusi Dance” (葫芦笙舞), and dances performed for rituals and ceremonies like the “Pu Wa Cuo” (仆瓦磋). These dances reflect various aspects of Pumi life, such as farming, hunting, and weaving.

One of the most famous traditional dances is the “Guo Zhuang” (锅庄), a group dance often held in the evening. The dance is named after the fire pit (锅庄) in the center, which resembles the traditional fire pit in Pumi homes. Other common group dances include “Chu Dai” (初歹), “Chu Ji” (初及), “Pa Shou La” (帕手拉), and “Xi Ma Wu” (洗麻舞). These dances are performed enthusiastically by people of all ages, often lasting deep into the night, creating a lively and joyful atmosphere.

Festivals

The Pumi (普米族) people celebrate several traditional festivals, each with its own unique customs. These include “Grand New Year” (大过年), “Great Fifteenth Festival” (大十五节), “Cave Circumambulation” (绕岩洞), “Mountain Climbing Ceremony” (转山会), and “New Rice Festival” (尝新节). In some areas, they also celebrate the Qingming Festival (清明节) and Dragon Boat Festival (端午节).

Grand New Year (大过年)

The Grand New Year is the most important and grandest festival for the Pumi people, typically lasting from three days to half a month. In Ninglang (宁蒗), the New Year begins on the seventh day of the twelfth lunar month, while in Lanping (兰坪) and Weixi (维西), it is celebrated during the first month of the lunar year.

In the Lanping region, it is customary to have a “Year Pig Feast,” where guests are served roasted pig’s trotters and bone soup to symbolize the bond of family and friendship. On New Year’s Eve, the male family head performs a ceremony to honor the “Door God” (门神) and the “Fire Pit” (锅庄). The family gathers around the fire pit for a reunion meal. On New Year’s Day, families offer sacrifices to the Fire Pit and Dragon Pool (龙潭), praying for a good harvest in the coming year.

In Ninglang (宁蒗), people set off firecrackers and blow sea conch shells on New Year’s Eve and offer pig heads to the Fire Pit. The following day, the family performs a rooftop ceremony to honor the house and fetch new water. Young people aged 13 and above undergo the “wearing pants” and “wearing skirts” ceremonies, marking their entry into adulthood. During the New Year, families from the same clan gather to herd livestock together, share meals, and engage in various recreational activities such as horse racing, shooting, running, and wrestling.

Great Fifteenth Festival (大十五节)

The Great Fifteenth Festival is celebrated on the 14th day of the twelfth lunar month in Ninglang (宁蒗). People wear new clothes, go camping in the mountains, and host a bonfire party. On the following day, they circle the “Mani Pile” (嘛呢堆) to pray for blessings. Young men and women sing, dance, and celebrate their love during this joyful festival.

Other Local Festivals

In Yongning (永宁), Pumi (普米族) people celebrate the Dragon Boat Festival with a Cave Circumambulation (绕岩洞) ceremony. They go into caves to burn incense and pray for prosperity, many wishing for large families with many children. On Zhongyuan Festival (中元节), they participate in the Lion Mountain Ceremony (转狮子山会) to honor the “Wood Goddess” (干木女神). These festivals serve both religious and social functions, providing opportunities for young people to socialize and entertain.

During the harvest season of both the small and large New Year, Pumi (普米族) people celebrate the New Rice Festival, where families brew new wine and prepare fresh rice dishes. The first batch of rice is sometimes given to the dogs as a gesture of respect for the animals.

Marriage

The Pumi (普米族) people traditionally follow a monogamous system. Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China (新中国), they practiced clan exogamy, where parents would arrange marriages. Early marriage was common, with girls marrying around the age of 15 and boys around 18. In some areas, marriage occurred shortly after the coming-of-age ceremony at the age of 13.

Traditional Wedding Process

In Pumi (普米族) culture, the process of choosing a spouse often involves several steps. After the family approves of a potential match, the groom’s family sends a matchmaker to the bride’s family with gifts. The bride’s family gathers the elders for a meeting to formalize the betrothal. After the engagement, the families exchange small gifts, and during major holidays, gifts are exchanged between the two families. The marriage is finalized when the groom visits the bride’s family to request her hand in marriage.

In the Lanping (兰坪) and Weixi (维西) regions, the wedding day is marked by a “duet singing” (对歌) ceremony. When the groom’s procession arrives at the bride’s home, the door is initially closed. The matchmaker sings a joyful song, explaining that the union is destined by heaven and man. The bride’s family opens the door and accepts the gifts and “opening money” (开门钱). On the following day, the groom’s family sings a welcoming song as the bride is escorted to her new home.

Post-Wedding Customs

After the wedding, the bride usually does not immediately live with the groom. In the Lanping (兰坪) region, the bride often stays with her own family for several years, sometimes until she becomes pregnant, before moving to the groom’s home. This delay in the bride’s relocation is typical, with most brides moving in after the age of 25, and some as late as 30 or even 40 years old.

In the Ninglang (宁蒗) region, the Pumi (普米族) still observe the ancient tradition of bride kidnapping. On the agreed wedding day, the bride is hidden at another house, and her relatives prepare to “capture” the groom’s party. When the groom’s procession arrives, the bride’s family takes the groom’s gifts and demands a ransom in tea leaves. On the wedding day, the bride is “abducted” by the groom’s family, and a purification ceremony is held to expel the bride’s family spirits. This ceremony is led by the “Kangui” (韩规), a religious figure, to ensure that the bride becomes part of the new family.

After marriage, divorce is not common in Pumi (普米族) culture. If the husband passes away, the wife typically marries her husband’s brother. If no brother is available, the family may arrange for her to marry within the clan. If there are no suitable matches, she may marry outside the clan with a dowry received by her in-laws.

Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Pumi (普米族) marriage customs have evolved. Young people now have more freedom to choose their spouses, and the practice of arranged marriages by parents has become less common. Marriages can now extend beyond the Pumi (普米族) community to include other ethnic groups, such as the Han (汉族), Bai (白族), Tibetan (藏族), Naxi (纳西族), and Lisu (傈僳族), leading to significant changes in traditional marriage customs.

Funerary Customs

The Pumi (普米族) people have highly ritualistic and respectful funeral customs. Traditionally, the Pumi (普米族) practice cremation, although some areas, such as Lanping (兰坪), which is influenced by the Bai (白族) ethnic group, follow burial customs. Weixi (维西) County practices both types of burial.

Funeral Process

When someone is near death, the family notifies close relatives. Upon the death of a person, guns are fired and firecrackers are set off to announce the news to the village. Villagers, upon hearing of the death, bring offerings such as rice balls and pig fat to pay respects. The body is washed and bound into a sitting position, as the Pumi (普米族) believe that this position reflects the natural birth state, facilitating the soul’s rebirth. The timing of the cremation is decided by a shaman, and each village has its own cremation ground.

The night before the cremation, the body is placed in a painted square coffin and set by the family’s fire pit (火塘) while a special ritual, known as the “Give Sheep” (给羊子) ceremony, is performed. This is the most solemn part of the Pumi (普米族) funeral, where the soul is guided to the ancestral home by a white sheep. The shaman leads the ceremony, sprinkling wine and fried flour into the sheep’s ears. If the sheep shakes its head, it is believed that the deceased is happy and brings good fortune to the family. Relatives kneel and offer the sheep drinks, while also bidding farewell by bowing. A specialist then slaughters the sheep and presents its heart. The shaman recites the “Guiding Path Chant” (指路经), directing the spirit to follow ancestral migration routes back to its ancestral homeland.

The funeral can include hundreds of people, with a communal feast called “Drinking Row Wine” (吃排酒), where the elders sing ancient songs, including one titled “The Story of the Oak Tree” (柞树的故事), which explains the origins of the sheep. Another song called “The Code of Conduct” (做人规矩歌) is sung to educate the younger generation.

Cremation Rituals

The body is carried to the cremation site, where the coffin is split open with an axe, and the body is laid on a pile of wood. Afterward, family and friends return, kneeling in sorrow to say their final goodbyes. A shaman chants prayers to guide the soul to heaven. The following day, the deceased’s children collect 13 bones from the cremation site and place them in a small, rounded urn. The urn is left partially open to symbolize the soul’s passage. The urns of the same clan are grouped together in a designated hill known as “Urn Hill” (罐罐山), arranged by age, with the elders at the top and the younger generation below, with men on the left and women on the right.

Famous Figures

Cao Xinhua (曹新华)

Cao Xinhua is the first internationally renowned Pumi (普米族) singer. He was an actor with the Yunnan Song and Dance Troupe (云南省歌舞团). In the spring of 1975, he was selected from the Ninglang Yi Autonomous County (宁蒗彝族自治县) Art Troupe to study at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. Cao Xinhua has participated in national art festivals such as the China Arts Festival (中国艺术节), the Shanghai Arts Festival (上海艺术节), and the Yunnan Arts Festival (云南省艺术节), performing songs like “Friends from Afar, Please Sit on the Pumi’s Flower Bed” (远方的朋友，请到普米族花床上坐一坐). His performances vividly depicted the life of the Pumi (普米族) people. Cao Xinhua also performed in countries such as Myanmar (缅甸), Thailand (泰国), and Singapore (新加坡), where he was warmly received. He was featured in the film “Eastern Color Clouds” (东方彩霞), which showcased the traditional attire of China’s 55 ethnic groups. Cao Xinhua has received numerous awards, including the “Outstanding Soloist” title from the Ministry of Culture of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国文化部).

Yang Zhaohui (杨照辉)

Yang Zhaohui is a Pumi (普米族) scholar. He graduated in 1975 from the Yunnan University for Nationalities (云南民族学院) with a degree in Chinese Literature. Fluent in Pumi (普米语), Bai (白族), Lisu (傈僳族), and Naxi (纳西族), he also has knowledge of Tibetan (藏族) and Yi (彝族) languages. Yang is currently a researcher at the Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences (云南省社会科学院), specializing in minority literature. He is also a member of several academic organizations, including the Chinese Folk Literature and Art Association (中国民间文艺家协会) and the Yunnan Provincial Ethnology Association (云南省民族学会).

Yang Zhaohui is the first senior scholar in the field of Pumi (普米族) ethnology. Since 1980, he has conducted field research on the Pumi (普米族) and other ethnic groups, comparing their cultural, historical, and linguistic similarities and differences. His scholarly works, including books and papers, have filled significant gaps in the study of Pumi (普米族) literature, religion, history, folklore, and language.

Lu Ruodiji (鲁若迪基)

Lu Ruodiji (鲁若迪基), whose Han name is Cao Wenbin (曹文彬), is a contemporary renowned Pumi (普米族) poet. Born on December 3, 1967, in Cuiju Township (翠玉乡), Ninglang County (宁蒗县), he is one of the most notable young poets from an ethnic minority group. He is a member of the Communist Party of China (中共党员) and holds a university degree. Lu’s poetry collections include “I Once Belonged to the Vast Primitive World” (我曾属于原始的苍茫), “Selected Lyric Poems by Lu Ruodiji” (鲁若迪基抒情诗选), and “There Is No Water Cleaner Than Tears” (没有比泪水更干净的水). His works have been published in literary journals like “People’s Literature” (人民文学), “Poetry Journal” (诗刊), and “Ethnic Literature” (民族文学).

His poetry has been included in major anthologies such as the “1999 China New Poetry Yearbook” (1999中国新诗年鉴), and some of his works have been translated into foreign languages. He has won numerous awards, including second prize in the Yunnan Daily “Southern Cloud” Poetry Contest (云南日报“南国云”诗歌比赛) in 1990, and he was awarded the 5th National Minority Creation Award (第五届全国少数民族创作骏马奖) in 1997. He is also a recipient of the 6th Border Literature Award (第六届边疆文学奖) and the 2004 “Poet of the Year” Nomination from the Chinese Literature Media Awards (华语文学传媒大奖).