Tibetan Ethnic Minority

The Tibetan (藏族) people are one of the 56 ethnic groups in China and are the indigenous inhabitants of the Tibetan Plateau. They are primarily distributed in the Tibet Autonomous Region (西藏自治区), Qinghai (青海), and the western parts of Sichuan (四川) and Gansu (甘肃), as well as in Diqing (迪庆) in Yunnan. Outside of China, Tibetan populations can be found in regions such as India, Bhutan, Nepal, the United States, Canada, Europe, and Australia. The city of Lhasa (拉萨) holds sacred significance for Tibetans worldwide. The global Tibetan population is estimated to be around 7.5 million, with approximately 7 million living in China as of 2016, and the global Tibetan diaspora population conservatively estimated at over 10 million.

History and Language

The history of the Tibetan people is deeply intertwined with the history of China and South Asia, making them one of the oldest ethnic groups in the region. After the establishment of the Tubo Kingdom (吐蕃) in the 7th century, interactions between Tibet and the Tang Dynasty (唐朝) became increasingly frequent. From the 10th to the 16th century, Tibetan culture flourished. In 1951, Tibet was peacefully liberated.

Tibetans have their own unique language and script. The Tibetan language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, with three main dialects: Ü-Tsang (卫藏), Kham (康), and Amdo (安多).

Religion and Culture

Tibetans predominantly practice Tibetan Buddhism (藏传佛教), which was introduced to Tibet from India during the 7th century. This form of Buddhism has been a central aspect of Tibetan culture for over 1,400 years. Tibetan culture is rich in various art forms, including literature, music, dance, painting, sculpture, and architecture. Tibetans are also skilled in Tibetan carving, which is a hallmark of their craftsmanship. Additionally, Tibetan opera and Tibetan medicine are unique cultural contributions that hold significant heritage for humanity.

According to the 2021 China Statistical Yearbook, the total Tibetan population is 7,060,731, with 3,518,532 males and 3,542,199 females.

Ethnic Identity and Terminology

The term Tibetan is used in Chinese, while Tibetans refer to themselves by various regional names depending on where they live. People from the Ali region of Tibet call themselves “Dui Ba” (堆巴), while those from Central Tibet are known as “Zang Ba” (藏巴), and from East Tibet, Southwest Qinghai, and Western Sichuan, they are called “Kang Ba” (康巴). People from Northern Tibet, Northwest Sichuan, Gannan, and Qinghai refer to themselves as “Amdo Wa” (安多哇). The terms “Ba” or “Wa” in Tibetan language mean “people.”

Tibetans have been known by various other names throughout history. During the Tang and Song dynasties, they were referred to as “Tubo” (吐蕃), while in the Yuan Dynasty, they were called “Tubo” or “Western Tibet” (西蕃). In the Ming and Qing dynasties, Tibet was called “Tibetan Plateau” (唐古特), “Tibetan Kingdom” (藏蕃), or simply “Tibetan people” (藏人).

History

Origin of the Tibetan Ethnic Group

The Tibetan (藏族) people trace their origins to an agricultural tribe located in the middle region of the Yarlung Tsangpo River (雅鲁藏布江) valley. Archaeological findings suggest that Tibetans have lived in this area for over 4,000 years. According to historical records in Chinese literature, the Tibetans are a branch of the Western Qiang (西羌) people from the Han dynasty period. Like many other early human groups, Tibetans transitioned from a hunter-gatherer society to one based on farming and animal husbandry. The Tibetan ancestors in the Yarlung region eventually divided into six tribes, known as the “Six Yak Tribes” (六牦牛部).

In the 6th century, the leader of the Yarlung tribe united the local tribes and became known as the Zampu (赞普), or “king,” marking the onset of a slave society.

The Tubo Kingdom Period

In the 7th century, a new era began in China as the Tang Dynasty (唐朝) rose to power, unifying China and ending over 300 years of division. During this time, the Tibetan hero Songtsen Gampo (松赞干布) united over ten tribes to form the Tubo Kingdom (吐蕃) and established its capital at Lhasa (拉萨). Songtsen Gampo maintained a strong relationship with the Tang Dynasty, gaining advanced production techniques and political culture. In 641, he married Princess Wencheng (文成公主), a member of the Tang royal family, further solidifying this relationship. This period saw the introduction of advanced technologies from the Tang Dynasty, including wine-making, grinding, and paper production.

The Tang-Tibetan Alliance

In 710, Princess Jin Cheng (金城公主) was sent to Tibet with gifts and teachings to support Tibetan Buddhism, marking another milestone in the diplomatic and cultural exchanges between Tibet and China. In 821, the Tibetan king Tridu Songtsen (赤热巴巾) sent envoys to the Tang Dynasty in Chang’an (今西安), initiating a formal alliance. This historic alliance, known as the Changqing Alliance (长庆会盟), is documented in the Tang-Tibetan Alliance Stone (唐蕃会盟碑), standing in front of the Jokhang Temple (大昭寺) in Lhasa.

However, by 842, internal conflicts within the Tubo Kingdom and tribal divisions led to the kingdom’s collapse. This resulted in nearly four centuries of local tribal warfare.

Song and Yuan Periods

From the 9th century, Tibet entered a period of disunity, with various regions governed by different local rulers, such as the Ari Kings (阿里王系) and the Zang Kings (藏王系). Despite this, Tibetan Buddhism began to permeate all levels of Tibetan society, becoming deeply entrenched within local governance. The Song Dynasty (宋朝) and Yuan Dynasty (元朝) continued interactions with Tibet, and during the Yuan period, Kublai Khan (忽必烈) formally incorporated Tibet into China as part of the Yuan Empire (元帝国).

In 1244, a peace treaty, known as the Liangzhou Conference (凉州会盟), was held between the Mongol Empire and Tibet. The Mongols integrated Tibet fully into China, and during the Ming Dynasty (明朝), Tibet was administered under a unique system where local Tibetan leaders were granted titles by the central government.

Ming and Qing Periods

Following the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Tibet’s governance structure underwent further changes, with the central government issuing official seals and titles to Tibetan leaders. The Qing Dynasty (清朝) solidified central control over Tibet in the 18th century, establishing the Governing Assembly of Tibet (噶厦政府) in 1751, which marked the beginning of the theocratic system where religious and political authority were intertwined.

In 1792, the Qing Dynasty repelled an invasion by the Gorkha (廓尔喀) forces and established greater control over Tibet, implementing the famous Regulations for the Better Governance of Tibet (钦定藏内善后章程). This regulated various aspects of Tibetan life, including governance, military defense, taxation, and border issues.

Modern History

After the Opium Wars, Tibet became a battleground for foreign powers, with the British launching invasions in 1888 and 1904, and briefly occupying Lhasa. The early 20th century saw Tibet under Republic of China governance after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, with a special committee handling Tibetan affairs.

In 1951, the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国) signed the 17-Point Agreement (十七条协议) with Tibet, peacefully liberating the region and integrating it into China. By 1965, the Tibet Autonomous Region (西藏自治区) was officially established, marking the beginning of full autonomy for the Tibetan people within the framework of Chinese governance.

Tibet continues to be a region of unique cultural and historical significance within China. Its rich traditions, religious practices, and political importance have shaped its role in the broader context of Chinese history.

Population

Historical Population Trends

During the middle period of the Tang Dynasty (唐朝), the Tubo Kingdom (吐蕃) occupied the Hexi Corridor (河陇), leading to a significant portion of the Han Chinese population in this region being assimilated into Tibetan culture. For more than 70 years, the Tubo rulers enforced a policy of “Tibetanization,” which resulted in the majority of Han people in the area adopting Tibetan customs. Historical records from the Zhang Bian (长编) describe over 230 Tibetan households, with populations reaching over 2,000 people, and some households, such as those from the Tubo Li Nubu Misan family, having 15 members.

Population Growth in the Modern Era

By the Northern Song Dynasty (北宋), the Amdo Tibetans (安多藏族) numbered approximately 2.1 million. While precise population data for the Jin Dynasty (金朝) is lacking, it is estimated that Tibet’s population during this period was slightly lower than that of the Song Dynasty, as the region experienced population decline due to ongoing wars, such as the Song-Jin Wars (宋金战争).

Following Tibet’s peaceful liberation in 1951, the proportion of Tibetans in Tibet and the neighboring provinces of Sichuan, Qinghai, and Gansu saw a significant increase, particularly in Tibetan autonomous regions. Since the 1960s, census data has shown that the Tibetan population in these areas has always outnumbered the Han population, especially in the Tibet Autonomous Region (西藏自治区), where Tibetans have continued to make up the overwhelming majority. From 1982 onwards, the proportion of Tibetans has continued to rise, while the proportion of Han Chinese has declined.

According to the 2010 Census, the Tibetan population reached 6.28 million, with a birth rate higher than the national average. Tibetans represent 0.4713% of China’s total population, making them the eighth largest ethnic group in the country. By 2021, the population of Tibetans had increased to approximately 7.06 million, with a nearly equal gender distribution, comprising 3.52 million males and 3.54 million females.

Distribution

Tibetans primarily inhabit the Tibet Autonomous Region (西藏自治区), and the Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures (藏族自治州) in Qinghai, including Haibei, Hainan, Huangnan, Golog, Yushu, and the Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Gannan in Gansu (甘肃), as well as the Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (迪庆藏族自治州) in Yunnan (云南). They also live in areas of Sichuan, such as the Aba Tibetan-Qiang Autonomous Prefecture (阿坝藏族羌族自治州) and Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (甘孜藏族自治州), as well as in parts of Gansu (甘肃) and Sichuan.

Economy

Pre-Revolutionary Tibet’s Economy

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国) in 1949, Tibet’s economy was characterized by a feudal serfdom system, where the majority of Tibetans were bound by agricultural and pastoral labor. The economy was mainly centered around barley farming, with primitive tools such as wooden or iron plows drawn by oxen. Farming methods were rudimentary, and crop yields were low. In pastoral areas, tools were even simpler, with leather and animal hair used for ropes and bags, and handcrafting methods for leather production.

Handicrafts were mostly concentrated around major towns and monasteries, with artisans using outdated tools for woodwork, ironwork, pottery, and stonecraft. Family-run handicraft businesses were common, with Tibetans also engaging in hunting and collecting medicinal herbs as secondary occupations. Trade was limited, with small-scale barter and silver coins being used in local exchanges. Large-scale regional trade was monopolized by a few local chieftains.

Post-Liberation Economic Growth

After the peaceful liberation of Tibet, the economy began to thrive under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (中国共产党). The implementation of policies promoting ethnic equality, social unity, and religious freedom helped stabilize Tibetan society. The Tibetan people, alongside their Han counterparts, worked together to build grassroots government structures, stabilize social order, and develop agriculture and animal husbandry. Infrastructure projects like road and bridge construction also supported economic growth.

Before the Democratic Reform (民主改革) in 1959, Tibet’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was only 174 million yuan, with a per capita income of 142 yuan. The abolition of the feudal system greatly boosted productivity, and by 2007, Tibet’s GDP had risen to 34.219 billion yuan, a staggering 59-fold increase from 1959, with an annual growth rate of 8.9%.

Traditional Tibetan Pastoralism

Tibetan pastoralism remains one of the primary economic activities, with semi-nomadic herding being the predominant lifestyle in the region. Livestock includes Tibetan sheep, Tibetan goats, yaks, wild yaks, horses, mules, and donkeys. The raising of yaks and the cultivation of barley are significant contributions made by the Tibetan people to global human civilization. Tibetan pastoralists typically engage in seasonal movements of livestock, rotating grazing areas depending on the time of year.

The contribution of Tibetan highland pastoralism to global heritage, particularly in terms of livestock breeding and barley cultivation, continues to be a vital part of Tibet’s economy and culture.

Culture

Language and Writing System

Language

The Tibetan language (藏语) belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, specifically the Tibeto-Burman subfamily. This subfamily includes Tibetan, Memba (门巴语), Lhoba (珞巴语), Pumi (普米语), and Jiarong (嘉戎语), among others. The main features of the Tibetan languages include a rich array of consonant clusters, numerous single and compound consonants, and an uneven development of tonal distinctions. Tibetan, for example, has 30 consonant letters and 4 vowel letters.

Writing System

The Tibetan script, known as bod-yig (藏文), is the written form used by the Tibetan people for communication. It is a phonetic alphabet and belongs to the consonantal alphabet type. Tibetan writing consists of three primary components: consonant letters, vowel symbols, and punctuation marks. There are 30 consonant letters, 4 vowel symbols, and 5 reverse letters used for writing foreign words.

The consonant letters are grouped in sets of four, with a total of 7 sets. The pronunciation of these letters has evolved over time and varies by region. The vowels, meaning “pleasant-sounding letters,” are easier to pronounce as they do not involve obstruction in sound production. Tibetan punctuation marks are simple, with few varieties, and differ in usage from other writing systems. There are 6 main punctuation marks, including symbols for separating syllables and marking specific points in texts, such as the cloud-head (云头符) used for titles or beginnings of chapters, and snake-shaped marks (蛇形垂符) for article introductions.

Literature

Tibetan literature is diverse and rich, encompassing both written and oral traditions. Epic poetry and folk songs are essential components of Tibetan literary culture. The Epic of King Gesar (格萨尔王传), a legendary narrative, is considered the world’s longest epic poem. Another celebrated piece of Tibetan literature is The Songs of Milarepa (仓央嘉措情歌), which has earned international acclaim for its beauty and spiritual depth.

Clothing

Tibetan clothing is a reflection of the unique cultural and environmental factors of the Tibetan Plateau. It is still worn traditionally today by both men and women. The styles vary by region, but the basic design of Tibetan clothing features long sleeves, wide waists, long skirts, and boots. This practical attire was originally designed to help people survive in the harsh, cold climate by providing insulation against the wind and cold at night.

The distinctive feature of Tibetan clothing is its wide sleeves and flowing design, allowing the wearer to adjust their clothing based on the fluctuating temperatures. For instance, a person can remove one sleeve in the daytime to regulate body heat. This adaptable style is one of the defining aspects of Tibetan fashion.

Tibetan attire is known for its vibrant colors and intricate designs. During festivals and cultural performances, the colorful outfits are a focal point of attention. Common colors include blue and white, with bold accessories such as bright belts and trimmings in red, green, purple, and yellow. The Tibetan women’s robes are often adorned with patterns that evoke themes of kindness and affection, such as cross-patterned floral collars.

Tibetans also place great value on the Khadar (哈达), a traditional white scarf made of silk or fine fabric. It is considered a sacred gift and is often presented during celebrations, visits, and farewells to express respect.

Jewelry and Accessories

Tibetan men and women pay great attention to their accessories. These can include silver, gold, pearls, agate, jade, and coral, which are used in headpieces, earrings, necklaces, belts, and rings. Tibetan jewelry often features elaborate designs, with many items tied to ancient practices related to agriculture and daily life.

The most distinctive Tibetan accessory is the 腰褂 (waist adornment), a key feature in Tibetan traditional dress. Jewelry items are often set with precious metals and stones like gold, silver, and gemstones, highlighting the cultural importance of these adornments. Headpieces, made of copper, silver, and gold, often incorporate motifs from nature and are considered a highlight of Tibetan attire.

Names and Naming Conventions

Historical Naming

After Songtsen Gampo (松赞干布) established the Tubo Dynasty (吐蕃王朝), he granted titles and territories to his loyal officials. To display their elevated status, people began placing the name of their territory before their own name. Examples include Nie Chisang Yandong (涅·赤桑羊顿) and Tunmi Sangbu Zha (吞弥·桑布扎).

With the rise of Buddhism in Tibet from the 7th century onward, names became influenced by religious practices, with many Tibetans consulting Lamas or living Buddhas for name-giving. For monks or high-ranking Lamas, their names would include their monastic titles or honors. For example, Khenpo Lönchok Tsering (堪布·伦珠涛凯) is a Khenpo (monastic title), and his personal name is Lönchok Tsering; similarly, Panchen Erdeni Chökyi Gyaltsen (班禅额尔德尼·却吉坚赞) combines the title “Panchen Erdeni” with the personal name “Chökyi Gyaltsen.”

Tibetan commoners typically do not have surnames, only personal names that are generally composed of four characters, such as Döji Tsidan (多吉次旦) and Shan Zeng Qü Zha (单增曲扎). For convenience, these names are often shortened to two syllables, such as “Döji” and “Shan Qü.” Shortening to the first and third or second and fourth syllables is common, but it’s rare to use the second and fourth syllables for shorthand.

Symbolism in Names

Tibetan names carry meaning and often reflect personal feelings, aspirations, or natural elements. Some people name their children after objects found in nature, like Dawa (月亮 – “Moon”) or Nima (太阳 – “Sun”). Others use the date of birth as a basis for their names.

Tibetan Calendar

Overview of the Tibetan Calendar

The Tibetan calendar (藏历) is a unique system created by the Tibetan people. Unlike the Han Chinese calendar, it has over 1,000 years of history. The Tibetan calendar combines three elements: the indigenous phenological calendar (based on the agricultural seasons), the Kalachakra calendar (introduced from India), and the Chinese calendar (introduced through Han influence). It is one of the most valuable aspects of Tibetan cultural heritage.

The calendar is a lunisolar system, dividing the year into four seasons: winter, spring, summer, and autumn, totaling 354 days. There are 12 months, with the first month corresponding to the lunar New Year. The length of each month alternates between 29 and 30 days, and an additional leap month is added to reconcile the months with the seasonal cycle. The leap month, however, follows different rules than the Chinese leap month system.

From the 9th century onwards, the Tibetan calendar adopted a stem-branch system similar to the Chinese calendar, using the five elements instead of the Ten Heavenly Stems: Wood (甲乙), Fire (丙丁), Earth (戊己), Metal (庚辛), and Water (壬癸). The twelve zodiac signs are also used, with each corresponding to an animal. For example, the Chinese jiazi year (甲子) is called Wood Rat Year in the Tibetan system. The 60-year cycle in Tibetan astrology is referred to as Rongkhung (饶琼), mirroring the Chinese system of the 60 Jiazi cycle.

Additionally, the Tibetan calendar contains 24 solar terms to forecast seasonal weather and predict the movements of the five planets, as well as solar and lunar eclipses.

Tibetan Medicine

The Origins and Development of Tibetan Medicine

Tibetan medicine, or Sowa Rigpa (藏医), is a comprehensive medical system that dates back over 2,000 years, with its roots in the Tubo period (吐蕃时期). During the reign of King Trisong Detsen (赤松德赞), Tibetan medicine underwent significant development. The founder of Tibetan medicine, Yutok Yonten Gonpo (宇妥·元丹贡布), compiled the Four Medical Tantras (四部医典), drawing on ancient Tibetan medical knowledge and integrating the best practices from various regions.

Diagnosis and Treatment Methods

Tibetan medicine employs a combination of inquiry, observation, and palpation (touch diagnosis) to diagnose conditions. Tibetan doctors classify diseases as either cold or hot in nature and treat them accordingly using methods such as inducing vomiting, purging, diuresis, and heat-clearing therapies. In addition to oral medications, treatments include acupuncture, cupping therapy, bloodletting, enemas, catheterization, hot and cold compresses, medicated butter hot compresses, and medicinal baths.

There are over 1,000 types of Tibetan medicines, with around 400 commonly used. Tibetan medicine is known for its holistic approach and in-depth understanding of human anatomy, which is distinct from other traditional medical systems.

Tibetan Understanding of Human Anatomy

Tibetan medicine recognizes seven essential substances in the human body: food essence, blood, muscles, fat, bones, bone marrow, and semen. These seven substances are considered tangible components that form the body. Additionally, there are three impure substances: feces, urine, and sweat.

Tibetan medicine also describes the human body as containing 360 bones, including 28 vertebrae, 24 ribs, and 32 teeth. There are 12 major joints and 210 minor joints. The body is also said to have 16 ligaments, 21,000 hair follicles, and 11 million sweat pores.

Tibetan doctors believe the body contains a series of channels or pulse systems. The white pulse is vital and is described in the Four Medical Tantras as branching out from the “ocean” of the brain, like tree roots extending downward. These channels are believed to resemble the concept of modern nerves. Similarly, the black pulse is likened to tree branches, some connected to the organs and others to the skin and muscles. This system includes major and minor arteries, as well as fine, intricate capillaries spread throughout the body.

Unique Aspects of Tibetan Medicine

The holistic approach of Tibetan medicine integrates physical, mental, and spiritual health, emphasizing the importance of balance within the body and with the environment. This system remains an essential part of Tibetan culture, with its practices and philosophy continuing to be passed down through generations.

Tibetan Arts

Tibetan Opera

Tibetan opera is a unique and rich form of performance that has evolved into several regional styles, including Tibetan Opera of Tibet (西藏藏戏), Amdo Tibetan Opera (安多藏戏), Dege Tibetan Opera (德格藏戏), and Chamdo Tibetan Opera (昌都藏戏). Each style is characterized by distinctive singing techniques, music, acting, and costumes. Tibetan and Amdo opera are the most widely known and influential.

Tibetan opera has a long history, dating back to the 8th century during the reign of King Trisong Detsen (赤松德赞). The origins of Tibetan opera can be traced to a ceremony at Sang Temple (桑寺), where performers combined traditional Tibetan folk dances with Buddhist stories to create a pantomime-like ritual. In the past, Tibetan opera was performed in open squares with only drum and cymbals as accompaniment, with the actors relying on their voices.

Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Tibetan opera has been brought to the stage, with reforms made to the singing styles and orchestration, enhancing the musical expression of the art form. Tang Dongjebu (唐东杰布) is credited with transforming the traditional dance rituals into a more dramatic form, incorporating character-driven performances with dancing and singing, and gradually separating Tibetan opera from religious ceremonies. He is considered the founder of Tibetan opera.

In many Tibetan opera venues, audiences often pay respects by offering Khata (哈达), a traditional ceremonial scarf, before the statue of Tang Dongjebu, to express gratitude. In his hometown, it is still customary for people to bring vegetable oil and wool to donate to the opera troupe, using the wool and oil to preserve the iron chains of the now-defunct bridge built by Tang Dongjebu, ensuring its longevity.

Tibetan Music

Tibetan music has a long and rich tradition, with texts and treatises on Tibetan ethnic music dating back to the 12th and 13th centuries. One such treatise is by Sakya Pandita (萨迦班达智·贡格坚赞), titled On Tibetan Music. Tibetan temples still use ancient graphical music notation known as Yangyi (央移谱). Tibetan traditional music is distinctive and diverse, consisting of three main categories: folk music, religious music, and court music.

Folk music includes sub-genres such as folk songs, song and dance music, ballad music, opera music, and instrumental music. There are significant stylistic differences among the folk music of the three major Tibetan-speaking areas: Ü-Tsang (卫藏), Kham (康), and Amdo (安多). Religious music includes chanting and monastic instrumental music, and court music is mainly performed in the Potala Palace (布达拉宫) in Lhasa (拉萨) and Tashilhunpo Monastery (扎什伦布寺) in Shigatse (日喀则).

Folk music is the most prominent in traditional Tibetan music. The Yangyi folk songs include various forms such as mountain songs (牧歌), labor songs, love songs, customary songs, and chanting tunes (颂经调).

Tibetan Dance and Song

Tibetan folk dance and song forms are diverse and colorful, with lyrics covering themes such as praise for the sun, moon, and stars, mountain and land, beauty and dress of women, longing for loved ones, wishing good fortune, and religious devotion. Since the 1950s, many new lyrics reflecting modern life have been composed.

Guoxie (果谐)

Guoxie, meaning “circle dance,” is an ancient form of song and dance widely popular across Tibet. It is known by different names in different regions: Sakya calls it “Suo”, Gongbu calls it “Bo” or “Boqiang”, and it is called “Zhuo” or “Guozhuo” (俗称锅庄) in the Tibetan pastoral regions of the north, Kham, and Amdo.

Duixie (堆谐)

Duixie is a popular song and dance form in the western part of Tibet, especially in the Yarlung Tsangpo River Basin (雅鲁藏布江流域) from Shigatse (日喀则) to Ali (阿里). It is especially popular in Lhasa (拉萨) and has a traditional following.

Xianzi (弦子)

Known as “Ye”, “Yi”, or “Kangxie” in Tibetan, Xianzi is a folk dance and song style originating from Batang (巴塘) in Sichuan. It is popular in the Kham and Ü-Tsang regions. Xianzi is often accompanied by traditional string instruments such as the bowed hu (牛角胡) or two-stringed erhu, and the dances are graceful and expansive, with beautiful melodies.

Nangma (囊玛)

Nangma is popular in the Lhasa (拉萨) area. The music of Nangma consists of three parts: a moderate-paced introduction, a slow-paced song, and a fast-paced dance tune. The song part is elegant and performed with simple dance movements, while the dance part is lively and energetic. The melodies in Nangma are often unique, with some songs featuring key changes.

Xieqin (谐钦)

Xieqin is an ancient ritual song and dance form that is popular in Lhasa (拉萨), Shannan (山南), Shigatse (日喀则), and Ali (阿里). It is typically performed during important festivals or ceremonies. Xieqin includes several songs and dances, each titled and typically beginning with an introductory tune, known as Xiegou (谐果), and ending with a celebratory tune, Zaxi (扎西), signifying auspiciousness.

Reba Xie (热巴谐)

Reba Xie is popular in the Kham (康巴) region, where itinerant performers use this form of song and dance for entertainment. It includes drum and bell dances, juggling, opera, wooden stick dances, deer dances, sword dances, and Reba Xianzi performances. The music for Reba Xie is lively, beautiful, and full of charm.

Other regional dance forms include Zhuoxie (卓谐), which is popular in Yunnan’s Zhongdian (中甸), Xiongchong (雄冲), and Zhuojian (卓见), as well as Dodi Dance (多底舞) and Gaba Dance (嘎巴舞), popular in Gannan (甘南) and surrounding areas.

Tibetan Art and Music: A Cultural Treasure

Tibetan art, particularly in the forms of music and dance, is deeply rooted in the culture and history of the Tibetan people. These traditions reflect their spiritual beliefs, natural surroundings, and social life, and continue to thrive today as vital aspects of their cultural identity.

Tibetan Musical Instruments

Tibetan music features a wide range of traditional instruments, including stringed, wind, and percussion instruments. Some of the most iconic instruments include the Zhami Nie (札木聂), Niugou Hu (牛角胡), Dahu (大号), Shudi (竖笛), and Bone Flute (骨笛).

String Instruments

• Zhami Nie: A six-stringed instrument, believed to have been in use for 600-700 years. It serves as the primary accompaniment in folk dances and songs, including Guoxie (果谐) and Nangma (囊玛).

• Niugou Hu: Similar to the Erhu (二胡), this instrument is made from cow horns and is primarily used in Xianzi (弦子) and Zhega (折嘎) performances. Its bow is shorter, and its melodies often include repeated eighth notes and added ornamentations, a characteristic of Tibetan string music.

Wind Instruments

• Shudi: A wooden flute widely used in the pastoral regions, it has a high-pitched sound and is commonly used to play pastoral songs.

• Bone Flute: Made from eagle or sheep bones, it also produces a sharp, high-pitched sound and is traditionally used for folk melodies.

• Dahu: A large brass instrument, known as Tongqin (同钦) in Tibetan, with a long, unpierced body and a broad bell at its base. It produces deep resonating sounds and is used during temple ceremonies and Tibetan opera.

Percussion Instruments

• Da Gu (大鼓), Reba Gu (热巴鼓), and Dama Gu (达玛鼓) are large drums used in performances.

• Gong and Cymbals (镲) are common in religious and festival settings.

Tibetan music has developed significantly, especially after 1959, when democratic reforms were introduced in Tibet. Since then, various professional cultural troupes have been established across the Tibetan regions, including the Tibet Autonomous Region Song and Dance Troupe (西藏自治区歌舞团) and the Qinghai Provincial National Song and Dance Troupe (青海省民族歌舞团). These organizations have contributed greatly to the collection, preservation, and performance of Tibetan music.

Famous Tibetan opera artists include Zhashi Dunjue (扎西顿珠) and Ama Ciren (阿玛次仁), while folk singers like Amaire (阿麦惹) and Qiong Bu Zhen (穷布珍) have made significant contributions to traditional music.

Tibetan Architecture

Tibetan Buddhist architecture is one of the most distinctive forms of traditional Tibetan art, characterized by grand structures, intricate craftsmanship, and vibrant decorations. These temples and monasteries are often built against mountainous backdrops, with their massive scale and colorful exteriors symbolizing the strength and spiritual significance of Tibetan Buddhism.

Development of Tibetan Temple Architecture

The evolution of Tibetan Buddhist temple architecture can be broadly divided into three stages:

1. Temple Architecture: In the early stages, the focus was on the simple design of temples.

2. Monastery Architecture: Later, more complex designs incorporating multiple buildings and courtyards began to appear.

3. Integration of Palaces and Monasteries: In the final stage, Tibetan monasteries started to incorporate palace elements, resulting in the formation of the unique style that is now characteristic of Tibetan temple architecture.

The “Chateau” Style of Tibetan Homes

The most iconic form of Tibetan residential architecture is the Diao Fang (碉房), a stone and wood structure designed to withstand harsh conditions. These houses have thick walls, a simple yet robust design, and often resemble a fort or tower. Typically, a Diao Fang is built in two stories: the ground floor is used for livestock and storage, while the upper floor is for living. Some homes also have a third level for religious or drying purposes. The architectural style of the Diao Fang is a direct reflection of the rugged environment and nomadic lifestyle of the Tibetan people.

Tibetan Etiquette and Customs

Tibetan people place great importance on etiquette and respect for others, particularly elders. The traditional forms of greeting vary depending on the social status of the person. When greeting elders or respected individuals, it is customary to remove one’s hat, bow at a 45-degree angle, and hold the hat in one’s hands near the ground. Among peers, a slight bow and holding the hat at chest level is sufficient.

Khata Offering

One of the highest forms of greeting in Tibetan culture is the offering of a Khata (哈达). This white ceremonial scarf symbolizes respect and warm welcome. The Khata can also come in other colors, such as light blue, yellow, or even a five-colored version for the most important ceremonies like religious rites.

Prostration Rituals

In Tibetan culture, prostration is a deeply significant gesture. When greeting elders, visiting sacred sites, or approaching revered monks, Tibetans may perform the full prostration or short prostration. The full prostration is done by placing one’s palms together, bowing three times, and then lying flat on the ground. Short prostrations are often performed in temples or when greeting respected individuals.

Birth Rituals

When a child is born, on the third or fourth day, relatives and friends bring offerings such as barley wine, butter tea, and gifts for the baby, as well as Khata for the mother. They may also bless the child with tsampa (barley flour) on the forehead, wishing the child good fortune and success in life.

Tibetan Marriage Customs

Tibetan marriage customs vary across different regions, but they generally follow a similar process. After two young people decide they wish to marry, they consult a Lama or living Buddha to determine whether their union will be auspicious. If the outcome is positive, the family of one party will send a Khata and gifts to the other party’s family to propose marriage. Upon acceptance, the families will set a date for the engagement ceremony.

The engagement ceremony involves exchanging gifts, setting the marriage contract, and consulting a Lama for an auspicious wedding date. On the wedding day, the bride is either brought to the groom’s home, or the groom moves to the bride’s family. Family members accompany the couple with gifts and arrangements for the wedding, which includes the presentation of Khata and wine. In the evening, the couple enters their new home, where relatives again offer wine and sing blessing songs, wishing the couple a long and prosperous life together.

Within six months, the couple visits each other’s family, marking the completion of the wedding rituals. This exchange reinforces family bonds and affirms the marriage.

Tibetan Cuisine

Tibetan cuisine is unique and characterized by specific ingredients and cooking techniques, with a focus on simplicity and nutrition. The core elements of Tibetan food include yak butter, tea, tsampa (barley flour), and mutton and beef, which are considered the “Four Treasures” of Tibetan diet. Other staples include barley wine and various dairy products.

Tibetan Meal Structure

Tibetan meals generally consist of three main parts: staple foods, side dishes, and soup. The flavors of Tibetan cuisine tend to be mild and balanced, with minimal use of spicy seasonings other than salt, onions, and garlic.

• Tsampa: Tsampa, made by roasting barley and grinding it into flour, is an essential food in Tibetan culture. It can be consumed in a variety of ways, but the most common method involves mixing it with tea, yak butter, and milk residue, forming small balls to eat.

• Dried Meat: A distinct food item, particularly in winter, is dried meat. Small strips of mutton or beef are hung in a cool, shaded place to freeze and dry naturally. This dried meat is then eaten in the following months, offering a crispy texture and unique taste.

• Tibetan Banquets: Tibetan banquets are elaborate, with different preparations and serving styles based on the social status of the guests. Traditionally, the type of meal served—vegetarian or non-vegetarian—varies, and the presentation is important.

Food Taboos

Tibetans have several dietary taboos. They typically eat mutton and beef but avoid eating horse, donkey, mule, and especially dog meat. Seafood, such as fish, shrimp, and snakes, are also avoided by the majority of Tibetans, particularly in rural areas.

As Tibetan society evolves, the cooking methods and presentation of Tibetan food are becoming more diverse, incorporating new influences while maintaining traditional roots.

Alcohol Culture

Barley wine is a beloved beverage in Tibet, brewed directly from barley. It has a low alcohol content and is widely consumed across all ages. During festivals and celebrations, barley wine is a must-have.

Drinking Etiquette

Tibetan drinking customs are rich in tradition. Before opening a new batch of wine, Tibetans first offer it to the gods in a ritual known as “wine offerings.” When drinking, guests are expected to respect the “order of elders,” offering the first drink to the oldest members of the family or group. Typically, the drinker holds the glass with both hands, lifting it above the head before offering it to others. The recipient then receives the glass with both hands, dipping their ring finger into the wine, touching it to the sky, and performing this gesture three times to show reverence for the heavens, earth, and deities before drinking.

Songs are often sung during drinking gatherings, with Tibetan drinking songs being melodic and heartfelt, filled with blessings and praises. In formal feasts, there may be designated female performers who sing enchanting drinking songs and encourage guests to drink, continuing until the guests are inebriated.

Tea Culture

Butter tea is an essential drink for Tibetans. This beverage is made from tea, yak butter, and salt, creating a creamy and salty drink. The best butter is made from yak milk, which is golden in color and rich in flavor, although some butter is also made from sheep’s milk, which is white and lighter in taste.

Tea Etiquette

Tibetans place great importance on the order of serving tea, particularly when guests are involved. It is considered polite for guests to wait until the host serves the tea to them. A guest should never grab the cup before it is presented. Tea is typically served in three rounds, and three cups are considered auspicious.

Funeral Customs

Tibetans have various funeral practices, with six primary forms of burial. The most significant is the stupa burial, reserved for important figures such as the Dalai Lama or Panchen Lama. Upon passing, their bodies are placed in a stupa (a type of tomb), which is then decorated and revered. In some Tibetan regions, there is also a practice of tree burial, where the deceased is wrapped in a fetal position and hung in a tree.

Sky burial (天葬) is another well-known and unique Tibetan funeral practice. The body of the deceased is taken to a sacred site, often a mountain or remote area, and left to be consumed by vultures. While some may find this practice mysterious or shocking, it is deeply rooted in Tibetan religious beliefs, particularly in the Buddhist concept of the impermanence of life. It is believed that the sky burial allows the soul of the deceased to ascend to the heavens.

Taboos and Etiquette

In Tibetan culture, certain customs and taboos are important for maintaining respect and harmony in social interactions.

Addressing People

When addressing others, particularly elders, it is customary to add respectful titles to their names. For instance, in Lhasa, the suffix “La” is added to a person’s name as a sign of respect, while in Shigatse, males are often referred to with prefixes like “Aji” or “Ajue”.

Visiting a Tibetan Home

When visiting a Tibetan household, it is customary to be offered barley wine first. Guests should dip their ring finger into the wine and offer it to the sky three times as a sign of reverence before taking a sip. The host will continue to refill the cup for the guest, and it is considered impolite not to drink the fourth round in one go.

When sitting, guests are expected to sit cross-legged, and gifts should be accepted with both hands. If offering gifts, the giver should bow and present them with both hands raised above the head. When being served tea or alcohol, it is polite to accept it with both hands.

Food and Drink Etiquette

When eating, Tibetans generally avoid making noise, and food should not be overfilled in the mouth. Guests are also expected to wait for the host to bring the tea to them before reaching for it.

Tibetans avoid eating donkey, horse, or dog meat. In some areas, five-clawed animals and birds are also avoided. Tibetans, due to religious beliefs, typically refrain from hunting wild animals.

Religious symbols and places such as temples, mani stones (prayer stones), and stupas must be respected. Tibetans always walk around these sites in a clockwise direction, and it is forbidden to touch sacred objects with one’s hands, especially the head, which is considered the most sacred part of the body.

Festivals

Tibetan festivals are numerous, with celebrations happening almost every month. The first month of the Tibetan lunar calendar is the most festive and important, with celebrations almost every day. These festivals are key expressions of Tibetan culture. Tibetan Buddhism, which has been practiced in Tibet for over 1,300 years, deeply influences these festivals, giving them a strong religious character. Many of these festivals have evolved into purely religious celebrations.

Shoton Festival (雪顿节)

One of the most significant festivals for the Tibetan people is the Shoton Festival, celebrated on the first day of the seventh month in the Tibetan lunar calendar, lasting four to five days. The word Shoton means “yogurt banquet,” and the festival is commonly referred to as the “festival of drinking yogurt.” According to Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug School), there is a period of fasting from the 15th of the sixth month to the 30th of the seventh month, during which monks are not allowed to leave their monasteries to avoid killing insects. After this period, the monks descend the mountains, and the locals offer yogurt, marking the start of the Shoton Festival.

Great Buddha Viewing Festival (大佛瞻仰节)

Held annually in Shigatse (日喀则), this festival is dedicated to honoring the giant Buddha statue at the Tashilhunpo Monastery (扎什伦布寺), the seat of the Panchen Lama. Tashilhunpo Monastery, one of the four major monasteries of Tibetan Buddhism’s Gelug school, is located at the foot of Nisa Ri Mountain (尼色日山). This festival involves both religious rituals and public celebrations, with the local community gathering to view the Buddha and participate in various cultural events.

Prayer Festival (祈祷节)

The Prayer Festival is one of the most significant religious events in Tibetan regions. It is known in Tibetan as “Molang Chebo”. There are two types of prayer festivals: one is celebrated by the Gelug (Yellow Hat) sect of Tibetan Buddhism, and the other is related to the indigenous Bon religion. Both are held twice a year: once on the 15th day of the sixth lunar month, and once from the first to the third day of the first lunar month. The first month‘s Prayer Festival is grander than the summer one, with performances such as the “God Dance” (跳神), which celebrates the unity of Tibetans and Han Chinese and features traditional Bon religious stories.

Famous Tibetan Celebrities

A-Lan Dawa Zhuoma (阿兰·达瓦卓玛)

A renowned female singer, A-Lan Dawa Zhuoma is one of the nine prominent “melodious divas” of the Ai Hui music industry, known for her beautiful voice and distinctive style.

Tashi Dondup (扎西顿珠)

Tashi Dondup is a new-generation Chinese actor, singer, and television personality. He is a member of the Chinese Youth Federation, a member of the China Musicians Association, and the Shangri-La Tourism Ambassador. He was recognized by CCTV as one of China’s Top Ten Ethnic Minority Youth Singers.

Rong Zhong’erjia (容中尔甲)

A male singer, Rong Zhong’erjia is known for his music inspired by the Tibetan epic King Gesar (格萨尔王). His album, “Tibetan Mystery: Songs of the Shepherd”, was released after eight years of creation, and his single “Leading the Race for Dreams” (为梦想领跑) was released in 2012.

Pu Ba Jia (蒲巴甲)

An actor who rose to fame after winning the “Good Boy” competition on Dragon TV. Pu Ba Jia won the Best Actor Award at the Monaco Film Festival in 2008.

Han Hong (韩红)

Han Hong is a female singer and a songwriter. She is a National Committee Member of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, a standing member of the National Youth Federation, and a director of the China Overseas Friendship Association.

Qu Ni Cizhen (曲尼次仁)

A female actress, Qu Ni Cizhen became the National Champion of the “Go! Eastern Angel” competition on Dragon TV in 2009, winning the Best Performance Award.

Nima Ze Ren Yadong (尼玛泽仁·亚东)

Nima Ze Ren Yadong is considered the first popular singer of Tibetan folk music. He became widely known through his appearances on CCTV’s music television program “Yearning for the Divine Eagle” (向往神鹰) and is recognized as one of the “Highland Three Stars” alongside Tengger (腾格尔) and Rong Zhong’erjia.

Losang Nima (洛桑尼玛)

A famous comedian and an apprentice of the well-known comedian Bo Lin. He was best known for his performance in the comedic show “Losang Studies the Arts” (洛桑学艺).

Bian Ba De Ji (边巴德吉)

Bian Ba De Ji is a female singer who became an internet sensation with her Tibetan version of the song “I Like You” (《喜欢你》). The flash video of her performance went viral, accumulating over 10 million views in just a few days. Her song is now popular in Lhasa (拉萨) and has received praise from cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Chengdu, and Taipei.

Wu Ze Baima Zhashi (悟泽·白玛扎西)

Born in Jiuzhaigou (九寨沟) in Sichuan Province, Wu Ze Baima Zhashi is a young actor, singer, and model. He is known as the Prince of Chinese Musical Theatre and has starred in several films, musicals, and television series. He is a rising star in China’s entertainment industry.

Wan Ma Cai Dan (万玛才旦)

A Chinese director and screenwriter born in Qinghai (青海) in 1969. He is a member of the Chinese Directors Association and the China Film Association, and has contributed significantly to the development of Tibetan cinema.

Jiang Yang Zhuoma (降央卓玛)

Jiang Yang Zhuoma is a Tibetan singer known for her warm and deep voice and her distinct presence on stage. Her performances have gained international recognition, and she is seen as one of the prominent stars of the 21st century. She brings the beauty of the Tibetan plateau to the global stage, spreading happiness and auspiciousness through her music.