Jingpo Ethnic Minority

The Jingpo ethnic minority is one of China’s diverse ethnic groups, with its own language and script. The language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, specifically the Tibeto-Burman group. The Jingpo people speak different dialects, with five subgroups: Jingpo, Zaiva, Leqi, Lang’e, and Bola. These languages use two scripts: Jingpo and Zaiva, both of which are based on the Latin alphabet.

Origins and Distribution

The origins of the Jingpo people are related to the ancient Di-Qiang (氐羌) peoples of the Tibetan Plateau. Historically, the Jingpo ethnic group is divided into five main subgroups: Jingpo, Zaiva, Leqi, Lang’e, and Bola. These groups primarily inhabit the mountainous areas of Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture (德宏傣族景颇族自治州) in Yunnan Province, with smaller communities found in Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture (怒江傈僳族自治州) and the border region with Kachin State (克钦邦) in Myanmar. Many of the Kachin ethnic groups in Myanmar share deep historical ties with the Jingpo and Lisu peoples in China.

According to the 2021 China Statistical Yearbook, the Jingpo population in China is approximately 160,471.

Cultural Practices

Festivals

The Jingpo people celebrate several unique cultural festivals, which are deeply tied to their traditional beliefs and agricultural cycles. These festivals are celebrated with various rituals, performances, and communal feasts.

Marriage and Family

Marriage within the Jingpo ethnic group follows traditional customs. Family arrangements and ceremonies are often elaborate, and the celebration of a wedding is a significant cultural event.

Funeral Rites

Funeral customs among the Jingpo are marked by unique rituals that reflect their respect for the deceased. These rites are an important aspect of their social and cultural life.

Ethnic Identity

Historically, the Jingpo people were known by various names, such as Xun Chuan Man (寻传蛮) and Gao Li Gong Ren (高黎贡人), which appeared in historical Chinese records. During the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, they were referred to by other names like Echang (峨昌), Zhexie (遮些), and Yeren (野人). Today, the Jingpo people, consisting of the Jingpo, Zaiva, Leqi, Lang’e, and Bola subgroups, all share the common name Jingpo, which was officially recognized after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. These subgroups are named after their languages and are used both as self-identifications and references for neighboring ethnic groups, including the Han and Dai people.

Early History

According to historical legends and Chinese historical records, the ancestors of the Jingpo ethnic group have lived in the southern Tibetan Plateau for centuries. They inhabited the mountainous region known as Mu Zhuang Sheng La Beng (木转省腊崩), which means “Natural Flat-topped Mountain.” The Jingpo people began migrating southward from the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau around the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), moving into the areas of northwestern Yunnan and the regions west of the Nujiang River (怒江). During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 AD), this area belonged to the Yongchang Commandery (永昌郡). Under the Tang Dynasty, it was part of the Nanzhao Kingdom (南诏) and was governed by the Zhenxi Jiedushi (镇西节度) military command.

At that time, the people of the area, including the ancestors of the Jingpo, were known as Xun Chuan Man (寻传蛮), living in the mountains and forests, hunting with bows and arrows.

From Yuan Dynasty to Modern Era

After the Nanzhao Kingdom and the Dali Kingdom, the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) established a province in Yunnan, and the region where the Jingpo people lived was incorporated into the Yunnan Provincial Administration. With the development of agriculture and social production, the Jingpo people gradually formed two major tribal alliances: Chashan (茶山) and Lima (里麻), which were the foundations of their society.

As the economy advanced, the Jingpo people developed a feudal system, with the nobility and commoners divided into three main social classes: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Slaves were bound to their masters and had no personal freedom.

During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the system of Tusi (土司) was established in the area. The Lima (里麻) and Chashan (茶山) regions were governed by appointed Jingpo officials known as Shanguan (山官). Over time, the administration passed through various hands and the regions were managed by military commanders, eventually falling under the control of the Tengchong (腾冲) and Yongchang (永昌) governments.

The 16th Century and Beyond

In the 16th century, large numbers of Jingpo people began migrating to the Dehong (德宏) region. Under the influence of advanced agricultural techniques from the Han (汉) and Dai (傣) peoples, the Jingpo people adopted plowing agriculture, using iron tools. They also learned to grow rice, further increasing their productivity. This led to the decline of slavery and the development of a feudal system. However, while some areas adopted feudal lordship, a complete feudal system did not fully take root.

During the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), the regions where the Jingpo people lived were governed by various administrative departments under the imperial government.

The Struggle for Autonomy and Resistance to Foreign Invasions

After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the Jingpo people saw significant changes. With the implementation of autonomous ethnic regions, they were able to transition from feudal systems to a more socialist structure. The mountain officials (山官) system was abolished, and the Jingpo people gained the ability to govern themselves, leading to substantial social, economic, and cultural changes. The once poor and underdeveloped Jingpo region transformed into a thriving and prosperous area.

Historical Contributions and Resistance

The Jingpo people have a long history of defending their homeland and contributing to the integrity of China’s borders. In 1875, during the Majiali Incident (马嘉理事件), the Jingpo people successfully killed a British spy named Majiali, thwarting an attempt by British forces to infiltrate China. In 1898, during negotiations over the Longchuan Border (陇川边界), Shang Ledu (早乐东), a Jingpo official, resisted the British imperialists and thwarted their territorial ambitions.

In 1910, when the British military occupied the Pianma (片马), Gulang (古浪), and Gangfang (岗房) areas, the Jingpo people fiercely resisted, sparking a province-wide anti-British movement. The China Border Defense Association (中国保界会) was established, and through these efforts, the British government eventually recognized these areas as Chinese territory.

During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), the Jingpo people actively participated in guerrilla warfare against the invading Japanese forces, using traditional weapons like swords, axes, and copper cannons to fight off the enemy in the western Yunnan (滇西) region.

Modern Reforms

With the foundation of the People’s Republic of China, the Jingpo people were granted ethnic autonomy within their designated regions. This enabled them to transition directly towards socialism and achieve significant reforms in their social and economic structure. These developments helped to overcome the legacy of poverty and underdevelopment, and the Jingpo region began to flourish in the new era.

Mountain Official System

Before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the Jingpo ethnic group practiced a political system headed by Bengdu (崩督), a term in Jingpo language meaning “mountain lord.” In this system, each Bengdu served as the leader of a mountain area. The Chinese scholars studying this system later named it the Mountain Official System (山官制度). The Mountain Official System was a political structure that evolved from the breakdown of clan leadership, and it had been in place for a long time in the Jingpo society.

Social Hierarchy

Under this system, society was divided into three classes: officials, commoners, and slaves.

1. Officials: Known as Du A Miu (督阿缪) in Jingpo and Zao Hu (早户) in Zaiwa, they were the elite class and occupied the highest social position. Their names included specific prefixes like “Zao” for males and “Nan” or “Zha” for females, indicating their noble status. Intermarriage with commoners was restricted, and high dowries were required for marriages with commoners.

2. Commoners: Referred to as Se Wa A Miu (色瓦阿缪) in Jingpo and Meng Bi You (勐比优) or Le Ta (勒塔) in Zaiwa, they had personal freedom, could migrate freely, and were responsible for paying taxes and performing unpaid labor for the officials. However, commoners were not allowed to become officials.

3. Slaves: Known as Mu Ya M A Miu (木牙姆阿缪) in Jingpo and Zhun (准) in Zaiwa, slaves had no personal freedom and were entirely dependent on their masters. Slavery existed before the Jingpo people’s migration to Dehong (德宏), especially in the regions of Jiangxinpo (江心坡) and Hukanghe Valley (胡康河谷). The enslaved people were generally captives from wars, foreigners, or orphans taken into the family and were considered part of the household but treated as laborers. Slavery gradually declined with the abolition of slavery in Myanmar during the British colonial period.

The Role of Mountain Officials

The Mountain Official was the highest political leader within a specific area, and the system was maintained through traditional rule. There were no centralized political organizations above the Mountain Officials, and each Mountain Official governed an independent district. The boundaries of these districts were often marked by natural features such as mountains and rivers, and any violations of these borders were considered challenges to the Mountain Official’s authority.

Administrative Structure

In traditional Jingpo society, each Mountain Official had an administrative system that included various assistants:

• Zaitou (寨头): These village leaders were elected from non-official families and were responsible for collecting rents and ensuring that the people performed their labor duties. They were typically selected from prominent families in the village and were granted administrative authority over the community.

• Su Wen (苏温): These were the natural leaders of families in the village who had no special privileges. They helped communicate the concerns of the common people to the Mountain Officials.

• Guan (管): In larger districts, a Guan was appointed to manage several villages and ensured that the administration of the region ran smoothly.

• Na Po (纳破): Responsible for leading seasonal rituals such as the spring plowing ceremony, and they occasionally assisted Mountain Officials with their duties.

Judicial System

The Jingpo ethnic group did not have codified laws. Instead, the political power of the Mountain Officials was maintained through traditional customary laws known as Tong De La (通德拉), which were heavily intertwined with religious beliefs and superstitions. Trials were often conducted through supernatural methods such as gambling, egg divination, and water tests. Punishments usually involved compensation in kind, and the death penalty was rarely imposed.

Decline of the Mountain Official System

Before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the Mountain Official system was still prevalent, though there was an ongoing trend toward feudalism in certain areas. Some regions experienced a shift towards a feudal lord system under the influence of the Dai (傣) ethnic rulers and the Han (汉) landowner economy. However, the system remained largely intact in Dehong (德宏), where it continued to shape the local social structure.

The Gonglong Uprising

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, due to increased oppression and exploitation under the Mountain Official system, the Gonglong (贡龙) Uprising emerged in the Yingjiang (盈江) and Tongbi Pass (铜壁关) regions in the northwest of Dehong. This uprising, which lasted for over 30 years, resulted in the abolition of the Mountain Official system in some villages, and the establishment of a Gonglong (贡龙) democratic system, where all the privileges of the Mountain Officials were removed. The villages under this system were managed by elected leaders, and the hierarchical relationships among people were abolished.

Despite the Gonglong Uprising’s significant blow to the Mountain Official system, its complete demise only occurred after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.

Ethnic Autonomy and Modern Reforms

After the People’s Republic of China was established in 1949, the Jingpo region was liberated, and the Democratic United Government was formed in 1951. In 1953, the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture was officially established, and in 1956, it was renamed the Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture under the new Constitution of the People’s Republic of China.

Agricultural Livelihood

The Jingpo (景颇) people are primarily an agricultural community. Their staple food crops include rice, millet, corn, wheat, and sorghum. Economic crops grown in the region include sugarcane, rapeseed, star anise, cardamom, and lemongrass.

Rice and Dryland Farming

The Jingpo people’s farming practices are divided into two main types: wetland rice farming and dryland farming.

Wetland Rice Farming

Wetland rice fields are often found on terraced lands located at the foot of mountains or on small flatlands between mountains. Before settling in the Dehong (德宏) region, the Jingpo people did not cultivate rice fields. After their settlement in Dehong, they adopted rice farming from the influence of the Dai (傣) and De’ang (德昂) ethnic groups. The traditional rice farming process, similar to that of the surrounding Dai people, involves the use of oxen for plowing and harrowing, with irrigation from natural mountain spring water. Rice is grown in one season per year, typically without the use of fertilizers.

Today, rice fields have become a significant source of livelihood for the Jingpo people, with rice being the staple food in their daily diet. The majority of their rice comes from their own fields. In addition to rice, they also grow wheat, watermelon, and rapeseed in the winter and spring seasons. Modern farming practices have seen the widespread use of chemical fertilizers and hybrid rice varieties.

Dryland Farming

Dryland farming is primarily carried out on slopes in the mountainous regions. Before the introduction of wetland rice farming, dryland farming was the primary source of livelihood for the Jingpo people. The traditional method of dryland farming was slash-and-burn agriculture, with crops such as dry rice, corn, soybeans, beans, sorghum, cotton, perilla, and vegetables.

In the 1980s, sugarcane became the primary crop grown on drylands in Dehong, with sugarcane cultivation becoming an important economic resource for the Jingpo people in the region.

Labor Organization

The traditional labor organization of the Jingpo people is based on individual family units. During busy agricultural seasons, they often engage in mutual labor exchanges called Wu Ge Long (吾戈龙) in Zaiwa language, meaning “exchange of work” or “working together.” This form of collaboration does not account for wages, time spent, or labor strength.

In agricultural production, there is a clear gender division of labor. Men are primarily responsible for heavy and technical tasks such as plowing, harrowing, clearing land, chopping firewood, hunting, and making agricultural tools. Women handle more repetitive and household tasks, including weeding, harvesting, transporting food, foraging, cooking, feeding pigs, and caring for the elderly and children.

Beliefs

The Jingpo (景颇) community holds two primary types of beliefs: traditional supernatural beliefs and the imported Christian and Catholic beliefs.

Supernatural Beliefs

Supernatural beliefs are the traditional religious practices of the Jingpo people and remain the dominant religion for most of them today. The core of Jingpo supernatural beliefs is the belief that both humans and all living things possess dual qualities: a natural and a spiritual existence. Jingpo people believe that not only humans have souls, but also animals, plants, and natural elements such as the sun, moon, mountains, rivers, wind, thunder, land, large stones, and valleys, all have spirits.

It is believed that the human soul is attached to the body but can also leave the body and wander during sleep. Dreams are seen as reflections of the soul’s encounters during its wanderings. In situations of fear or harm from natural forces, the soul may leave the body and cannot return on its own. If a ritual is not performed to call the soul back, the person will die. The soul is thought to remain after death, transitioning to another world and becoming a ghostly spirit capable of causing harm, known as Na Te (纳特).

Jingpo people perform a wide range of religious rituals, which can be categorized into collective rituals and family rituals, with variations based on location and occasion. One prominent ritual is the “Neng Shang” ceremony, performed in the forest outside the village where altars are set up to honor spirits such as the sky, earth, sun, water, and ancestral spirits who have contributed to the village. This ceremony is performed before planting and after harvest each year to ensure a good harvest and protection for the people.

Family rituals occur at fixed times in February, April, May, October, and November, focusing on spirits of the household, water spirits, and the souls of grains. Special ceremonies are held for weddings, funerals, the arrival of a new home, or the birth of a child. Problem-solving rituals are conducted for curing illnesses, calling back lost souls, or resolving disputes.

The role of religious leaders, called Dongsa (董萨), is central in these rituals. Dongsa acts as an intermediary between people and the spirits, offering prayers and blessings. The highest-ranking Dongsa is the Zhaiwa, who is regarded as a highly knowledgeable scholar of Jingpo history and culture. Other ranks of Dongsa include Ga Dongsa, Cu Dongsa, and Xi Zao Dongsa.

Christian and Catholic Beliefs

Christianity and Catholicism were introduced to the Jingpo people in the early 20th century. By the mid-1950s, Christianity in the region was associated with three main denominations: Baptist, Inland Mission, and Assemblies of God, primarily under the management of the Burmese church. In the 1950s, Jingpo Christian communities in the region came under the leadership of the Yunnan Christian Three-Self Patriotic Movement Committee and have been affiliated with the Shanghai Christian Baptist Church ever since. Catholicism began spreading in the Jingpo area in 1930.

Architecture

The Jingpo people mostly live in the foothills or on small flatlands around 1,500 meters above sea level, with a few settled in the lowland areas. Villages typically consist of 40 to 60 households, with only a few larger villages. Villages are usually built on mountainsides, facing the plains or river valleys. The lower end of the village is called the “village foot,” and the higher end is the “village head.”

Historically, the entrances to villages were marked with gates made of wooden posts, while the higher areas of the village were marked by natural objects like large stones or trees. These markers defined the boundaries of the village and were important in ceremonies.

Traditional Dwellings

Traditional Jingpo houses were primarily made of bamboo and wood. They were often built on raised platforms 1 to 2 meters above the ground, with the lower floor used for storing firewood, farming tools, and for raising pigs and chickens. The upper floor was used for living spaces, divided into rooms by bamboo partitions. Each room had a hearth, with one for cooking and others for resting.

The houses were generally rectangular and thatched with grass. The bamboo framework, held together with rattan, made them flexible and lightweight. These houses were rebuilt every 7 to 8 years, with the entire village working together to construct a new house in just a few days.

With the development of the economy, modern houses have replaced the traditional structures. Many Jingpo houses now feature brick and mortar, with tiled or metal roofs and wooden or mud brick walls. However, traditional materials are still used in some villages.

Cuisine

The Jingpo (景颇) people primarily rely on rice as their staple food. Bamboo tube rice and chicken porridge are traditional favorites.

Their dishes are known for their spiciness, and the variety of food includes not only vegetables such as pumpkins, beans, taro, and Chinese cabbage, but also wild vegetables and fruits gathered from the forests.

Common cooking methods include pounding, roasting, grilling, boiling, steaming, and mixing. Among these, pounded vegetables are the most unique feature of Jingpo cuisine, known for their distinctive, fresh taste. As the Jingpo say, “If the pounding tube doesn’t make a sound, the meal won’t taste good.”

Clothing

Traditional Attire

Jingpo clothing is distinct in style. Men’s clothing generally features black and white colors. Elderly men across different subgroups wear black, front-buttoned short shirts with black, wide-legged trousers, and black headwraps. For younger and middle-aged men, there are slight variations in attire across different subgroups. They typically wear white high-collared shirts, black round-collared outer jackets, black trousers, and a red-blue checkered cylindrical headscarf. Other subgroups also feature white shirts, black trousers, and headwraps adorned with colorful pom-poms.

Regardless of the subgroup, men carry tube bags (a type of backpack) and a long knife when traveling.

Women’s Attire

Women’s clothing can be categorized into everyday wear and ceremonial attire.

• Everyday wear includes black or multi-colored front-buttoned or right-buttoned tight short shirts, paired with solid-colored or patterned cotton long skirts featuring traditional Jingpo designs.

• Ceremonial attire is worn during festivals or weddings. The upper garment is a black, short, collarless, tight-sleeved shirt adorned with silver coins, silver plates, and silver fringes on the chest, shoulders, and back. The lower garment is a woolen skirt with beautiful designs in red, black, yellow, and green, a red belt at the waist, and a woolen red floral headscarf. Women also wear leg wraps that match the color and fabric of their skirts and adorn themselves with red necklaces, earrings, and bracelets.

In recent years, with economic development, Jingpo women’s clothing has evolved, while retaining its traditional features. During festive celebrations, new variations of Jingpo women’s ceremonial attire can be seen.

The most distinctive styles are found in the Lang’e and Leqi subgroups:

• Lang’e women’s ceremonial attire includes a black, tight-sleeved shirt decorated with silver bubbles, red-yellow fringes, and a black cylindrical headscarf adorned with colorful pom-poms.

• Leqi women wear a black, tight-sleeved shirt with red-yellow fringes and small silver bubbles across the chest, paired with a black skirt with yellow patterns and a blue waist belt. Their headscarf features colorful pom-poms.

In the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, the Jingpo people, who live among the Lisu people, have absorbed some of the Lisu clothing styles. Their attire is quite different from that of the Dehong region. Women wear no silver ornaments but instead have garments decorated with colorful fabric patterns. They wrap their heads with green cloth and use ornamental fringes. Their skirts are woven from brocade fabric. Men wear white cotton-blend shirts and long pants, with a blue sleeveless coat, and their headwrap is decorated with colorful fringes.

Etiquette

The Jingpo are known for their hospitality. When guests enter their homes, regardless of whether they are familiar or not, the hosts will offer food and lodging.

The Jingpo enjoy drinking liquor and homemade rice wine. Drinking is done with strict etiquette. When the host presents the liquor tube, the guest must hold it with both hands, supporting the bottom of the tube, rather than gripping only the top. While drinking, the tube should not be held up; instead, it is poured into a small cup. When meeting familiar people, they exchange drinks by first pouring a little of the liquor back into the other person’s tube before drinking it. If drinking from the same cup, each person drinks a sip, wipes the spot where they drank, and passes it to the next person. If there are elders present, they are always served first.

The Jingpo elderly are fond of chewing tobacco. They combine grass tobacco with a small amount of lime paste and dry lotus root, which is believed to help with alertness, brain function, and dental health. When meeting someone, they may offer each other a tobacco box as a gesture of respect, friendliness, and politeness.

Language

The Jingpo (景颇) people have their own language and writing system.

The Jingpo language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, specifically the Tibeto-Burman group. Due to the presence of five subgroups, each using different dialects, there are variations in the linguistic classification. The Jingpo subgroup uses Jingpo, which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, while other subgroups, such as Zaewa, Leqi, Lang’e, and Bola, use dialects that belong to the Burmanic subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman family. In daily life, people from different subgroups not only speak their own dialects but also often understand and use other subgroup languages.

Writing System

The Jingpo people use two writing systems: Jingpo script and Zaewa script. Both scripts are phonetic and based on the Latin alphabet. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, linguists reformed the original Jingpo script to improve the phonetic representation of sounds. The Zaewa script was created in 1957 to meet the needs of the Zaewa subgroup.

Literature

The Jingpo people have a rich tradition of folk literature, which includes epics, myths, legends, folktales, ballads, proverbs, love songs, and narrative poetry.

Religious texts recited by the priest Dongsa (洞萨) also form part of their religious literature. These texts reflect the Jingpo people’s history, culture, worldview, life attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and aspirations.

Epic Literature: Muna Zhaiwa

The Muna Zhaiwa (目脑斋瓦), a Genesis epic, is one of the most outstanding examples of Jingpo oral literature. The poem is over 10,000 lines long and covers themes such as the formation of the heavens and earth, the world of gods and spirits, the appearance of humans, the origin of the Jingpo people, human life, love, and suffering. The epic synthesizes the Jingpo people’s understanding of the universe, their history, their thoughts, emotions, and their aspirations for life. It vividly reflects the worldview of the Jingpo and their sincere, simple, and uplifting emotions.

Family

Historically, the traditional Jingpo family consisted of both nuclear families (husband, wife, and children) and extended families (parents, married children, and their families).

In Jingpo society, the father is the head of the family, and children inherit their father’s surname. Lineage is calculated patrilineally, and property is passed down through the male line.

Traditionally, the youngest son inherits the family estate, staying with the parents and inheriting the house. Other sons who marry move out and establish their own households. Women do not have inheritance rights and do not have naming rights for their children in marriage. In matrilocal marriages, children follow the father’s surname.

Men generally hold higher status in both the family and community. They make decisions regarding external affairs of the family, clan, and village. While both husband and wife have decision-making power in family matters, men typically make decisions regarding farming, purchases (such as fertilizers, appliances, and livestock), and sales at markets. Women generally handle the selling of vegetables, grains, and poultry.

Family income is often managed by the women.

Arts

Music

The Jingpo people have a rich tradition of folk music, with various types of songs. These include “Yuelu” (舂米调, rice pounding song), “Zhi” (山歌, mountain songs), “Zaiwa” (历史歌, historical songs), “Naoshi Youen Xian” (催眠曲, lullabies), “Muzhan” (风俗歌, folk songs), and “Enzhun” (情歌, love songs).

Jingpo folk songs cover a wide range of topics, including ethnic history, ancient legends, celebrations of harvest, and expressions of love. The music varies in form, including both monophonic and polyphonic styles.

Dance

The Jingpo people’s dances are predominantly group dances, with forms such as circle dances, procession dances, and winding marches. These dances reflect daily activities, such as production, life, war, and religious ceremonies. The dances can be categorized into celebratory, religious, and entertainment types. Notable dances include “Zongge” (纵歌), “Bugun” (布滚歌), “Longdong” (龙洞歌), “Zhengge” (整歌), “Jinzai” (金再再), and “Xiang Muhe” (向姆赫).

Among them, Zongge includes various dance forms arranged in a sequence, with ordered steps and clear rhythm, demonstrating the high level of group choreography. The instruments used in these dances include wooden drums, elephant foot drums, gongs, and bamboo wind instruments such as Bike, Tuliang, and Lerong.

Craftsmanship

Weaving is a prominent Jingpo art, known for its ethnic characteristics. The weaving tools are simple, but they produce over 300 beautiful and intricate patterns.

Jingpo painting is often associated with primitive religious beliefs, featuring simple line patterns, such as meander and straight-line motifs.

Jingpo carving includes simple round sculptures and bamboo-wood engravings.

Festivals

The Jingpo (景颇) people celebrate several traditional festivals, with the most grand and elaborate being the Muna Zongge Festival (目脑纵歌节). Other important festivals include the Nengxian Festival (能仙节) and New Rice Festival (新米节).

Muna Zongge Festival

The Muna Zongge Festival is a traditional ceremony for worshiping the sky god Mudai (木代), the highest deity in Jingpo‘s supernatural beliefs. Mudai symbolizes wealth and happiness, and is believed to provide protection and blessings. Only the village chieftains (known as Shanguan or 山官) have the authority to conduct this ritual. The frequency and scale of the ceremony are a reflection of the chieftain’s prestige among the people.

Historically, Muna Zongge was held to celebrate harvests, military victories, or to honor significant achievements. Villages under the chieftain’s jurisdiction would prepare offerings such as pigs and cattle, and the event involved substantial sacrifices. It was not an annual event; typically, it would only take place every few years or even decades.

The festival includes grand collective singing and dancing activities, during which the participants pray for good harvests and the safety of the people. It has become a community-wide event, drawing people from all over the region. In April 1983, the Muna Zongge Festival was officially recognized as the Jingpo people’s traditional festival by the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture (德宏傣族景颇族自治州). It is now celebrated annually in the first month of the lunar calendar. During the festival, thousands of Jingpo men and women gather in their finest attire to celebrate on the festival grounds, with performances, art exhibitions, and various cultural activities.

Marriage and Relationships

The Jingpo people practice a unique form of marriage called Zhangren-Zhuang (丈人种) and Gujie-Zhuang (姑爷种), which is a one-way marriage system based on the relationship between the father-in-law and son-in-law. When two families marry, they not only establish the personal roles of son-in-law and father-in-law but also create distinct group identities, forming a permanent bond between the two families.

Marriage Customs

In traditional Jingpo culture, marriages are often arranged based on family lineage, and the family of the bride and groom become intertwined through the marriage. Specific rules are followed, including the prohibition of marriages between individuals of the same surname and close blood relations.

In the past, marriages were mostly arranged by the parents, and there were various traditional ways to arrange marriages:

• Mi Que (米确): The process where a man’s family would select a bride, often without her knowledge, and arrange a marriage ceremony after divination confirmed its suitability.

• Mi Dong (米东): A form of marriage where a young girl would be “engaged” to a man before she was old enough to marry.

• Mi Kao (米考) and Mi Lu (米鲁): These terms referred to elopements and abductions, where a girl would be taken against her will due to romantic or familial conflicts.

Since the 1950s, after the introduction of marriage freedom laws, these practices have largely disappeared, and most marriages are now formed through mutual consent.

After marriage, the bride would often stay with her family for a period, and the groom would visit regularly, bringing wine and assisting with work until the bride became pregnant. At that point, the couple would move to the groom’s house.

Funerary Customs

The Jingpo people have unique funeral practices. The type of funeral is determined by the cause of death:

• Funeral customs for a peaceful death: For natural deaths, the deceased is considered to have had a “good death,” and the family immediately announces the passing with gunshots to signal the village. Family members and neighbors gather to mourn and help with preparations. The body is kept in the home for several days before burial, with cleansing and dressing rituals performed before placing the body in the coffin.

• Fire and Sky Burials: For those who die unnaturally, such as in accidents or suicides, fire burial (for violent deaths) or sky burial (for infants) is performed.

• Burial Sites: The ideal burial site is a high location with a view of a mountain, facing a slope. The site is traditionally chosen by throwing eggs, with the site where the egg cracks being considered lucky.

Funeral Ceremonies

The funeral involves two main ceremonies: burial and the soul sending ceremony. The burial ceremony takes place first, followed by the soul sending ceremony, which traditionally takes place a year after the death. In modern times, the two ceremonies are often held together.

During the funeral, the Jingpo people engage in ceremonial dances, such as the Bugun (布滚戈) dance, which can last for several nights until the burial is completed. The deceased’s family and villagers participate in the dance as a way to honor the departed and help guide their soul to the afterlife.

Through these practices, the Jingpo people show deep respect for their ancestors and maintain strong connections to their cultural traditions.