Dulong Ethnic Minority

The Dulong (独龙族) is one of China’s smaller ethnic groups, primarily residing in Gongshan Dulong and Nu Autonomous County (贡山独龙族怒族自治县) in Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture (怒江傈僳族自治州), Yunnan Province. They are one of the least populous ethnic groups in China and also the smallest minority in Yunnan Province. The Dulong people speak the Dulong language (独龙语), though they do not have their own written script.

Cultural Practices and Beliefs

Historically, the Dulong people practiced group marriage, a tradition that no longer exists. The Dulong people believe in animism, holding that all things in nature have spirits, and they worship natural elements. They also have a belief in ghosts.

One unique cultural practice among the Dulong women is the custom of face tattooing, which was once common for young girls, though this practice is increasingly rare today.

Population and Distribution

As of the 2010 census, the Dulong population was around 7,000 people. They are primarily distributed in the western part of Gongshan Dulong and Nu Autonomous County, along the Dulong River Canyon (独龙江峡谷) and the northern banks of the Nujiang River (怒江), as well as in nearby areas such as Qile Township (齐乐乡) in Weixi Lisu Autonomous County (维西傈僳族自治县) and Chawalong Township (察瓦龙乡) in Tibet Autonomous Region (西藏自治区). There is also a significant Dulong population in Myanmar.

According to the 2021 China Statistical Yearbook, the Dulong population is 7,310, with 3,562 males and 3,748 females.

History and Name

The Dulong people refer to themselves as “Dulong” (独龙), but they have historically been known by other names such as “Qiaopa” (俅帕) and “Qulo” (曲洛). The Dulong are considered the earliest inhabitants of the Dulong River region. The Yuan Yi Tong Zhi (元一统志), an ancient text, mentions the Dulong people as part of a broader ethnic group called the “Qia” (俅), further solidifying the connection to the Dulong.

In 1952, under the guidance of Premier Zhou Enlai (周恩来), and in accordance with the wishes of the Dulong people themselves, the names “Qiaopa,” “Qiazi,” and “Qulo” were abolished, and the group was officially recognized as the Dulong Nationality (独龙族).

Origins and Formation

The origins and formation of the Dulong Ethnic Group (独龙族) remain unclear, but based on linguistic analysis, they are classified as part of the Tibeto-Burman subgroup of the Sino-Tibetan language family. It is believed that the Dulong people originated from the Di-Qiang ethnic group. There are two main myths among the Dulong people regarding their origins:

1. One theory suggests that the Dulong are an indigenous people.

2. Another theory proposes that the Dulong originally lived in the Nujiang River (怒江) region. After an accidental hunting trip to the Dulong River Valley (独龙江河谷), they discovered a vast hunting ground and flat terraces. Over time, they gradually migrated from the northern to the southern parts of the region. Eight out of the fifteen Dulong clans trace their origins to the Nujiang River. Linguistic and cultural similarities, such as the face tattooing practice, also suggest that the Dulong people are closely related to the Nushu (怒族) people of Gongshan (贡山). In recent years, most scholars have found this latter theory to be more credible.

Historical Development

Early History

During the Tang (唐) and Song (宋) Dynasties, the Dulong River Valley was under the control of the Nanzhao (南诏) and Dali (大理) kingdoms. During the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties, the area was governed by the Mushi Tusi (木氏土司) in Lijiang (丽江) and the military and civilian authorities of Lijiang Road (丽江路). Early records of the Dulong people appear in Chinese historical texts, such as the Yuan Yi Tong Zhi (元一统志), which mentions several ethnic groups in Lijiang Road. The term “Qia” (俅) was used to refer to the Dulong, who lived in mixed communities with Tibetans and Lisu people. The Qia River and Qia Yi region, located in the upper Dulong River, are still referred to by these names today.

In the Qing Dynasty, it was recorded in the “Yunnan Tongzhi” (云南通志) that the Dulong lived outside Lancang River (澜沧江) in Heqing and Lijiang, living in simple houses made from grass or tree bark. They were known for living a primitive life, hunting, and using tree leaves for clothing. These historical accounts reflect the lifestyle and production activities of the Dulong people.

The Qing Dynasty and the Dulong People

In the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Dulong River and Nujiang River were divided into two regions under the rule of the Mushi Tusi in Lijiang. From 1730, the Dulong people began to pay tributes of wax, hemp cloth, and donkey skins to the authorities in Weixi. Later, this tribute system was transferred to the Tibetan lama temple (喇嘛寺) under the administration of Chawalong Tibetan (察瓦龙) officials.

The Dulong people faced oppression from both local slave owners (including the Lisu and Nushu peoples) and external forces. These slave owners frequently captured Dulong people to work as slaves. This long history of resistance and suffering culminated in a bloody suppression by the ruling powers, who even forced the Dulong to pay tribute with “human flesh” in the form of human sacrifices called “Corpse Grain” (尸骨钱粮).

The Early 20th Century and the Rise of Nationalism

Between 1907 and 1908, during the Qing Dynasty, the government sent officials to the Nujiang and Dulong Rivers to suppress rebellions. In the “White Halao Religious Incident” (白哈罗教案), the local people, including Tibetans, Lisu, and Dulong, rose up against imperialist forces. A British team, led by Captain Brichard, attempted to enter Dulong River from Myanmar, but was met with fierce resistance. The Dulong hunters ambushed the invaders, killing Brichard and forcing the others to retreat.

The Dulong people’s resistance against foreign and domestic oppression continued into the Xinhai Revolution (辛亥革命) period, when the Dulong River region was transferred to the Chengpu-Tong Administrative Office (菖莆桶殖边公署) and later restructured in 1918 into the Gongshan Administrative Committee.

The People’s Republic of China

By the time of the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the Dulong population had dwindled to only 1,700 people due to centuries of oppression, massacres, and imperialist exploitation. However, after the peaceful liberation of Gongshan (贡山) in August 1949, and the establishment of the Gongshan County People’s Government in 1950, the Dulong people began to recover and re-establish their cultural identity.

In recent years, the Dulong people have been included in efforts to preserve their traditions, with particular emphasis on face tattooing (纹面), which has been recognized as an endangered cultural heritage.

Population and Distribution

The Dulong Ethnic Group (独龙族) is a minority group that spans across borders, with a significant population residing in the northern part of Myanmar, particularly in the Enmei Kai River (恩梅开江) and Maili Kai River (迈立开江) basins.

Population Statistics in China

As of the 2010 Census, the Dulong population in China is approximately 6,930 people, with 6,353 of them living in Yunnan Province. The only autonomous county for the Dulong people is Gongshan Dulong and Nu Autonomous County (贡山独龙族怒族自治县) in the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture (怒江傈僳族自治州). The Dulong people in Dulongjiang Township (独龙江乡) make up 98.87% of the township’s population. A small population is also scattered in Qile Township (齐乐乡) of Weixi Lisu Autonomous County (维西傈僳族自治县) in Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (迪庆藏族自治州), and Chawalong Township (察瓦龙乡) in Tibet Autonomous Region (西藏自治区). There is also a notable Dulong population residing across the border in Myanmar.

Growth and Demographic Trends

• According to data from the 2000 Census, the Dulong population was 7,400, with 3,600 males and 3,800 females, with a gender ratio of 96.61 males per 100 females.

• Compared to the previous decade, the Dulong population grew by 0.16 thousand, with an annual growth rate of 2.35%.

• In the population structure, 29.13% are children and adolescents (ages 0-14), 65.27% are of working age (ages 15-64), and 5.59% are elderly (ages 65+). Compared to 1990, the proportion of children and adolescents decreased by 13.25%, while the working-age population increased by 12.26% and the elderly population increased by 0.99%.

Educational Attainment and Literacy

• Among the population aged 6 and above, 73.53% have received education at or above the primary school level, 29.70% have received education at or above the middle school level, and 2.35% have attained a college or university degree.

• The average number of years of education is 5.71, an increase of 2.34 years compared to ten years ago.

• Of the population aged 15 and older, 26.80% are illiterate. The male illiteracy rate is 18.66%, while the female illiteracy rate is 34.48%. Since 1990, the illiterate population has decreased by 0.04 thousand, and the illiteracy rate has dropped by 26.84%.

Employment and Occupation

• Among the employed population, 93.84% work in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishing), 0.78% in the secondary sector (industry), and 5.37% in the tertiary sector (services).

• 93.76% of the Dulong people are engaged in agricultural or manual labor, with a small percentage involved in office work or technical occupations.

Marriage and Family Structure

• 70.99% of the Dulong population aged 15 and above is married, with 58.96% having married for the first time and 3.36% remarried. The divorce rate stands at 0.65%, and the widowhood rate is 8.02%.

Birth and Death Rates

• In the period between November 1, 1999, and October 31, 2000, there were 860 births among the Dulong population, with a total fertility rate of 2.50. The sex ratio at birth was 126.32 males per 100 females, with 118.75 for first-born children, 81.82 for second-born children, and 181.82 for third-born children.

• The Dulong population experienced 77 deaths in the same period, with a crude death rate of 10.41‰, 13.19‰ for males, and 7.71‰ for females. The infant mortality rate was 24.12‰, and the average life expectancy was 66.02 years.

These demographic figures highlight the relatively small but resilient Dulong community, with their distinct traditions and cultures still preserved in the face of modern challenges.

Culture

Social Structure

The Dulong people refer to their clans as “Nile,” meaning a community linked by a shared ancestry. Historically, the clan system was much stronger, with members having close ties and a sense of collective responsibility. Over time, these bonds have weakened, with fewer political and economic connections among clan members. Today, the concept of a clan is mostly remembered through ancestral symbols. Clan names are typically based on characteristics of the clan, and some carry supernatural meanings. For example, in the 1950s, some of the 15 clans in the Dulongjiang Valley (独龙江流域) were named “Mujin,” meaning “born from the heavens”; “Dangsheng,” meaning “red skin”; and “Dongle,” meaning “bad-tempered.” Other names are derived from geographic features, such as the names “Mabilo” and “Kelaolo,” which are the names of two major tributaries in the upper Dulongjiang River (独龙江).

The Dulong people maintain a blood revenge system, where if a member of a clan is harmed or killed, other clan members are responsible for avenging the incident. Furthermore, marriage is prohibited between different families within the same clan.

Clan Communities and Family Structure

The Dulong people’s family communities, known as “Qila” (其拉) or “Jikelo” (吉可罗) in the Dulong language, were formed from the splitting and migration of original clans. By the 1950s, there were 54 family communities in the Dulongjiang Valley (独龙江流域). These communities, though not as cohesive as the original clans, still play a unique role in the social life of the Dulong people. Key aspects of these family communities include:

1. Territorial Boundaries: Each family community has a defined territory, marked by mountains, rivers, forests, and streams, forming natural villages. Members of other families cannot settle in these areas or engage in farming, hunting, or fishing without permission.

2. Leadership and Roles: Each family community has a natural leader known as “Kasan” (卡桑), who is typically an elder, respected for wisdom, eloquence, and wealth. The Kasan participates in labor and is not hereditary; if a leader loses his influence or dies, a new one is chosen. The Kasan is responsible for organizing production, presiding over rituals, resolving disputes, collecting tribute, leading in battle, and negotiating alliances. Family communities are independent and equal; they only form temporary alliances in the face of external threats, such as when fighting against the exploitation of Tibetan (藏族) or Lisu (傈僳族) rulers.

3. Exogamy: Marriages within the same family community are forbidden, and the practice of exogamy (marrying outside the family community) is common.

4. Naming Conventions: Each family community has a unique name, often inspired by the local natural environment. For example, “Kongdang” (孔当) means “a large flatland,” and “Longgun” (龙棍) means “a place full of stones.” Some family communities are named after the family head, such as “Mu Qianwang” (木千王) and “Mu Qian Tu” (木千图).

5. Family Naming Traditions: The names of individuals are typically preceded by their family name or father’s name. For instance, a Dulong woman named “A Chun” (阿婻) would have the full name “Bai Li” (家族名) Ding Ban (父名) Ding (母名) A Ke Qia (爱称) A Chun (排行).” This naming system allows the identification of family lineage and birth order. Even after marriage, a woman does not change her family name.

6. Family Structure: Family communities consist of several extended families led by a patriarch, known as “Zong” (宗). These families typically include three generations: grandfather, father, and son. The “Jima Jia” (吉马戛) is the head of the extended family. The family is structured around multiple hearths, where each new family established by a married son creates its own independent economic unit. These families continue to share communal labor and resources, with each hearth managing its own small granary called “Pengqiu” (捧秋), while the communal granary “Pengqian” (捧千) is managed by the elderly matron. Meals are shared collectively, with food distributed equally among all members, regardless of age.

This traditional system, rooted in matrilineal customs, reflects a society where older women, particularly the matron, had significant authority. Over time, with the growth of individual labor and the shift to a patriarchal family structure, the Dulong people gradually adopted a monogamous family system, where smaller family units are more common, and decision-making is more often handled jointly between husband and wife.

The Dulong people’s social structure has evolved from a communal system centered around large family units to a more individualized family organization. However, traditional practices such as exogamous marriage and community-led rituals remain a part of their culture.

Religion

Beliefs and Practices

The Dulong people hold a deep belief in spirits and gods, with their annual Kaqiewa Festival (卡雀哇节) being a key event where they burn pine branches to invite spirits for protection and peace.

Influenced by the belief that everything in nature has a soul, the Dulong people widely accept the existence and influence of spirits. Their understanding and worship of nature are mainly expressed through reverence for various spirits, though the concept of “gods” is still closely tied to their belief in spirits. They believe that all the fortunes and misfortunes in life are determined by spirits.

Totem worship has largely disappeared, but ancestor worship rituals have not been found, and there are no idols or symbolic offerings for worship. Instead, the Dulong people practice rituals such as spirit worship, healing by shamans (referred to as “Namusa” (南木萨) and “Wu” (乌)), spirit exorcism, and divination. These practices have been influenced by Bonism (苯教) from the Tibetan people, as well as the indigenous religious beliefs of the Nu (怒族) and Lisu (傈僳族) peoples.

In the 1930s and 1940s, Christianity was introduced to the Dulongjiang River Valley (独龙江流域), and some Dulong people in the lower regions began to convert to Christianity.

Role of Shamans

Shamans play an important role in Dulong religious practices. There are two types of shamans: “Namusa” (南木萨), who lead rituals and conduct divination, and “Wu” (乌), who specialize in driving away spirits. The Namusa holds a higher status within the community.

The Dulong people believe that both humans and animals have two souls: “Bula” (生魂) and “Axie” (亡魂). The “Bula” is the living soul, and it is believed to be controlled by “Gemeng” (格蒙), a heavenly figure. When the Bula is taken by Gemeng or killed by an evil spirit, the life of the person or animal comes to an end. The Bula does not reincarnate but disappears forever. The “Axie” is the soul of the deceased and is often blamed for causing harm to people and animals. To appease the Axie, people offer sacrifices of food and alcohol or use the smell of burning hemp cloth to drive the Axie away, saying the phrase “Axie Moli” (阿细默里). The Dulong people believe that the Axie Moli lives in a parallel world, which closely mirrors the human world, with mountains, villages, and animals. The Axie lives on for as long as they did in life.

The Ten Layers of Heaven

According to Dulong beliefs, the world extends into ten layers of heaven:

1. The first layer is Namunyange (南木年各若), the domain of “Mupepeng” (木佩朋), who governs all celestial matters.

2. The second layer is Mude (木代), where Gemeng (格蒙) resides. Gemeng is responsible for the creation of all things in the world, the fate of humans and animals, and offering protection and blessings to the human world.

3. The third layer is Muda (木达), where the four celestial gates are located. It is inhabited by spirits, including the King of Spirits, Namuzengmu (南木曾木柔).

4. The fourth layer is Namulangmu Song (南木郎木松), a resting place for the spirits.

5. The fifth layer is Namugaluo (南木嘎尔哇), the home of the soul of an iron worker.

6. The sixth layer is Dabula (大不拉), where the souls of the living and animals can wander.

7. The seventh layer is Namuduomeli (南木夺默里), where the souls of good people and infants reside.

8. The eighth layer is Zilimudangmu (兹力木当木), the place where evil spirits imprison the “Bula” of the living.

9. The ninth layer is Helmu (赫尔木), the space above the roofs of houses.

10. The tenth layer is Dangmuka (当木卡), the fire hearth in each home, which is considered the most sacred object. Every time the Dulong people drink alcohol or eat meat, they offer sacrifices to the hearth by pouring wine and placing meat as offerings. The iron tripod or three stones used to support the pot on the hearth are considered sacred and untouchable.

Role of Shamans in Rituals

The Namusa (南木萨) and Wu (乌) are the primary types of shamans in Dulong culture. Traditionally, clan leaders or village heads also serve as shamans. The Namusa is selected by Gemeng and is believed to have special eyes that allow them to communicate with the healing spirits of the “Nam.” During healing rituals, the Namusa burns pine branches to purify the space, sets up offerings, and performs various rites to summon the spirit “Nam” to bring down heavenly medicine. The medicine is then administered to the sick, and if it is excreted, it is believed that the soul of the patient has been taken by Gemeng and cannot be healed. Otherwise, a soul exchange is performed using the spirit of a chicken or pig to replace the patient’s spirit. The Namusa is responsible for overseeing this soul exchange ceremony.

The Wu (乌) is an older type of shaman whose role includes prophecy and spirit worship. Under the influence of the spirit, they engage in drunken chanting and dancing, claiming to be possessed by an evil spirit known as the “Yagui” (崖鬼). They predict misfortunes and disasters. Every year around the Chinese New Year, the Dulong people perform a “Cattle Stealing Ritual” to appease the spirits and protect their villages. The Wu personally slaughters the cattle, and no one else is allowed to perform the sacrifice.

Language and Writing System

The Dulong language (独龙语) belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. While the exact classification remains debated, linguist Sun Hongkai has suggested that the Dulong language is closely related to other languages such as Jingpo (景颇语), Nung (僜语), and Loba (珞巴语). The language is written using a Latin-based phonetic alphabet.

Historically, the Dulong people did not have a written script. Instead, they used methods such as carving wood to record information, tying knots for counting, and drawing or embroidering symbols to express ideas and emotions—early signs of writing. In the early 1950s, Dulong people in Myanmar (缅甸) created a written form based on their local language, known as “Riwang Script” (日旺文), developed by Bai Jidou and missionary Morse. This script was used for spreading Christianity in the region and included translations of religious texts such as the Bible.

In 1983, based on the wishes of the Dulong people, the Yunnan Provincial Ethnic Affairs Commission sent a linguist, Long Chengyun (龙乘云), to assist John Muli Men (木里门·约翰), a Dulong language expert, in creating an official Dulong alphabet. This script, developed from the Riwang Script, was designed using linguistic surveys to accurately represent Dulong dialects, with the Kongdang Village (孔当村) serving as the standard pronunciation base. The script was officially adopted in 1984 and tested in Gongshan County (贡山县) among the Dulong people.

Astronomy and Calendar System

The Dulong people have a unique calendar system, developed through centuries of experience and closely tied to the natural cycles of their environment. In the Dulong community, a year is defined from one heavy snowfall to the next, marking the period as one complete year, referred to as “Jiyou” (极友). The year is divided into twelve periods or months, each with different lengths depending on the natural changes observed throughout the year.

The Twelve Months of the Dulong Calendar

1. January – A Meng (阿猛): Known as the “Snow Month,” during which the community rests, and some households may plant dry potatoes.

2. February – A Bo (阿薄): Called the “Grass Growth Month,” when mountain grasses begin to grow, and the time for planting potatoes.

3. March – She Jiu (奢久): The “Sowing Month,” when crops such as millet, taro, and cotton are planted.

4. April – Chang Mu Jiang (昌木蒋): The “Flowering Month,” when peach blossoms bloom, and cranes gather and call; it marks the completion of sowing.

5. May – A Shi (阿石): The “Mountain Burning Month,” during which the Dulong people burn large areas of forest to prepare for the next season’s planting.

6. June – Bu Ang (布昂): Known as the “Hungry Month,” when stored grain is consumed, and the community gathers wild foods from the mountains.

7. July – A Rong (阿茸): The “Mountain Grass Flowering Month,” during which people gather wild foods and weed the fields.

8. August – A Chang Mu (阿长木): The “Frost Month,” when mountain grasses are killed by the first frost, and the harvest begins.

9. September – Dan Luo (单罗): The “Harvest Month,” when crops such as millet, corn, barnyard grass, and buckwheat are collected.

10. October – Zong Mu Jia (总木甲): The “Snowfall Month,” marking the end of the harvest and the beginning of snow on the mountain peaks.

11. November – Le Geng (勒梗): Known as the “Water-Down Month,” when river water recedes, and the community gathers firewood and prepares for winter.

12. December – De Ze Kan (得则砍): Known as the “End of Year Month” or “Luo She Shi La” (罗奢什腊), when women gather wild hemp, weave cloth, and participate in the traditional “Bull Dance.”

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Dulong people began learning the advanced Gregorian calendar and adopted modern agricultural techniques. Though the traditional natural calendar was gradually replaced by the Lunar Calendar (夏历), many elderly Dulong people still rely on the natural changes in the environment to mark the start of agricultural work, such as planting and harvesting months.

Clothing

The traditional clothing of the Dulong people is simple and practical. Both men and women expose their arms and wrap their lower legs with hemp cloth strips.

Men’s Clothing

Men wear a striped hemp cloth called “Yue De Ge Ren Gua” (约德格仁瓜), which is wrapped across the chest and tied in front. They usually tie a small piece of cloth called “Neng Bu Te Lian” (能布特连) around their waist to cover their lower body, secured with a hemp rope. Men often carry a knife on the left side and a basket made of rattan on the right.

Women’s Clothing

Women wear two long pieces of hemp cloth, called “Qi La Yi Yue Gua” (其拉衣约瓜), which they wrap around their body, tying them at the waist with a rope. These cloths are used as clothing during the day and as blankets at night. Traditionally, some men would even only use a string of leaves to cover their waist.

Both men and women wear their hair loosely, hanging in front of the face to the eyebrows and over the shoulders to cover the ears. In the past, Dulong people favored wearing earrings and necklaces, but this practice is now rare among men.

Traditional Facial Tattooing

In the past, Dulong women practiced facial tattooing, a custom known as “Ba Ke Tu” (巴克图) in Dulong language. This was typically performed around the age of twelve or thirteen. During the tattooing process, a bamboo stick or tree branch dipped in soot was used to outline the design on the face. After the pattern dried, a thorny bush was used to prick along the design, followed by applying soot or plant juice to help the tattoo penetrate the skin. After several days, the tattoo would turn blue and could no longer be washed away, leaving a permanent mark.

The style and extent of facial tattooing varied by region. In the upper reaches of the Dulongjiang River (独龙江), full-face tattoos were common, covering the forehead, cheeks, nose bridge, and lips. In the lower reaches, tattoos were typically limited to a circle on the nose and a few lines on the upper lip. There are various theories regarding the origin of this tradition. Some believe it was a coming-of-age ritual for Dulong women, others see it as a form of beauty or a way to ward off evil spirits. Some even believe it was practiced to protect women from being abducted by other tribes. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the practice gradually declined among Dulong women.

Customs

Daily Life Customs

In Dulong society, meals, including drinking, eating, and meat consumption, are traditionally shared by the family, with the wife distributing portions. When guests arrive, the food is shared equally. In the evening, men gather around the fire and drink alcohol while chanting blessings. They then place their bowls on a bamboo rack over the fire, with the bowl facing upwards as a symbol of good luck.

The Dulong people are known for their hospitality. When a wild animal is hunted or a family slaughters a pig or a cow, a grand feast is often held, inviting both distant relatives and neighbors. Moreover, they maintain a unique custom of welcoming passing strangers and guests. Anyone passing through or seeking lodging in a Dulong home is warmly welcomed, and it is considered highly inappropriate not to offer food or a place to stay for the night. The Dulong people uphold excellent traditions such as returning lost items and leaving doors open at night, seeing theft as a disgraceful act. However, visitors are not allowed to observe certain indigenous ritual ceremonies.

Food

The traditional Dulong diet is simple and reflects the ecological environment and the limited development of their society. Historically, their food sources were scarce, consisting primarily of grains and wild plants. The main foods include corn, potatoes, barley, millet, buckwheat, and oats, with starchy foods being the most dominant in their diet. Cooking methods are simple, mainly relying on roasting, boiling, and baking, using basic bamboo and wooden tools. Over the years, as beans and vegetables were introduced, the Dulong people’s diet has slightly changed.

Typically, the Dulong people eat two meals a day: breakfast mainly consists of stir-fried noodles or roasted potatoes, while dinner is centered around corn and other grains. Due to their limited resources, the Dulong people generally have a light diet with little oil or salt. They enjoy drinking alcohol, typically homemade low-alcohol rice wine, which is an essential part of their social life. Alcohol is consumed during family visits, production cooperation, weddings, funerals, religious ceremonies, and festive occasions. When guests arrive, especially during festivals, the hosts and guests will share a drink of “Tongxin Wine” (同心酒), a traditional wine, as a symbol of friendship and loyalty.

Additionally, influenced by the nearby Tibetan culture, the Dulong people enjoy a unique tea mixed with salt, tea leaves, and boiled animal or plant oils, prepared in a special bamboo tube.

Festivals

The only traditional festival celebrated by the Dulong people is the Kaqiewa Festival (卡雀哇节), which is their New Year. It takes place between December and January according to the lunar calendar, although the exact date is chosen by each village. The length of the festival varies, usually lasting two to five days, depending on the availability of food. During the festival, the Dulong people worship gods and spirits, perform divination by throwing bowls, share a communal New Year’s meal, and engage in singing, dancing, and staying awake through the night. The most festive and significant event is the Bull Hunting Ceremony (剽牛祭天), where a bull is slaughtered as an offering to the heavens.

Marriage Customs

The Dulong people strictly practice exogamy, meaning that individuals from the same clan, whether or not they are directly related, cannot marry one another. Marriages are generally arranged between specific clans, forming marriage groups that are quite fixed.

Before marriage, Dulong youths have the freedom to socialize, and children born outside of marriage are not stigmatized. However, the arrangement of marriage is generally made by the parents. The marriage process typically involves an engagement and wedding ceremony. The groom is required to offer a dowry, known as “Puma Wang” (仆妈旺) in Dulong language, to the bride’s family. The groom’s family invites several relatives and brings wine and other gifts (in pairs) to the bride’s family. The bride’s family invites the whole village to join the celebration and negotiates the dowry.

The dowry can vary depending on the economic situation of the groom’s family. It typically includes a cow, a pot, an iron tripod, and some jewelry. If the full dowry cannot be provided at once, it can be paid in installments. On the wedding day, the groom’s family brings gifts and alcohol, and the bride’s family will slaughter a pig to treat the guests. The celebration continues with drinking, dancing, and singing at the bride’s home. The next day, the groom’s family takes the bride home, where the mother-in-law leads the bride through the house to show her the various areas, including the storeroom, water source, and pigsty. The groom’s family also slaughters a pig for a feast.

After several months, the groom’s family will visit the bride’s parents, bringing two tubes of rice wine and a pig’s leg as a token of thanks.

The Dulong people rarely experience divorce. If a wife leaves her husband, and there are unmarried daughters in her family, the younger sister is expected to marry the husband. If there are no unmarried sisters, the full dowry must be returned. If the husband initiates the divorce, the bride’s family may return part of the dowry or none at all.

Changes After the Founding of New China

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Dulong marriage customs underwent significant changes. Young people are now free to choose their spouses, and marriages are registered in accordance with the law.

Funerary Customs

The Dulong people traditionally practice earth burials. The coffins are made of easily sourced materials, sometimes constructed from four wooden planks, or by hollowing out a tree trunk or wrapping the body in bamboo matting before burying it in the ground. The body is carried out of the house the day after death, but according to Dulong customs, the body must not be carried out through the main door. Instead, a hole is made in the back wall or floor to remove the body. This is believed to prevent further deaths. During the funeral, an elder leads the procession, wielding a knife to drive away evil spirits and marking the burial site. Those who die naturally are buried near their homes, as the Dulong people believe it is heart-wrenching to bury a loved one far from home.

Art and Culture

Housing

Most Dulong people live in the mountain terraces along the Dulong River (独龙江) valley. They form natural villages based on family and bloodline ties. Dulong homes are generally small, constructed using materials like winter melon trees, bamboo, and grass. There is a strong tradition of “one family building, the whole village helps.” Men assist the homeowner in processing the fallen winter melon trees into beams and boards, while women provide bundles of grass to build the house within a single day.

The houses are of two types: wooden log houses and bamboo houses. The roofs are thatched, sloping on both sides, and the floor is made of winter melon wood planks, covered with bamboo mats. The lower level is small and used for keeping pigs and chickens. The typical house has two rooms: one with a fire pit where the family cooks and sleeps, and the other is a bedroom for unmarried children or a space to entertain guests. In Bapo Village (巴坡村) in Dulongjiang Township (独龙江乡), larger wooden houses were traditionally built with four or five connected rooms. Dulong people store their harvested grains in separate granaries located 20 to 30 meters from their homes, reflecting a culture where theft is highly disdained.

Folk Songs and Stories

Dulong folk tales and songs are rich and varied. Some of the most famous myths include Genesis, The Giant Ant Divides the World, The Great Flood, and Tangengpeng. These stories reflect the early stages of Dulong society and offer insight into their ancestors’ interpretations of the universe and human society. Commonly told tales include The Star Maiden, The Fish Maiden, The Maiden and the Frog, The Great Pumpkin, The Mountain of the Sun, and The Orphan Gong Gan. These stories praise love, marriage, hard work, and mock laziness, all while highlighting distinct Dulong cultural traits.

Dulong folk songs, called “Men Zhu” (门竹), are sung in pairs, and singing is a widespread form of artistic expression in daily life. These songs are performed during festivals, farming, hunting, house building, weddings, and other celebrations. For example, The Labor Song and The Hunt of the Wild Buffalo tell of hard work and hunting success. Dulong love songs such as We Will Always Love Each Other, Only You Are Close to My Heart, White Clouds and Mountain Springs, Wildflowers, and Looking At You are popular and cherished. Each song is like a narrative poem or a lyrical poem, loved by the Dulong people.

Music and Instruments

The Dulong people have their traditional music and instruments. Some of the main instruments include:

• Kou Xian (口弦): This is a traditional bamboo mouth harp, commonly found in Dulongjiang (独龙江) region. It is made of two bamboo pieces, and the player blows through it to control the pitch of the sound.

• Mang Luo (芒锣): A gong used during bull hunts, dances, festivals, or when the village leader gathers the community. The rhythm of the Mang Luo sets the pace for dancing, with the faster the gong sounds, the quicker the dancers’ steps.

• Bells: Used during rituals to summon spirits. The bell’s sound can be heard from a distance, and it is believed that it has a special power to drive away evil spirits during ceremonies.

• Leaf Flute: The Dulong people love to play music on tree leaves. They often blow on leaves while resting after work, and the melodies are mainly love songs.

Dulong music and instrument playing are inseparable from dance, with the community often dancing while playing their instruments.

Dance

The Dulong people have their own traditional dances, usually performed during the New Year, bull hunting ceremonies, weddings, or after a successful hunt. These dances are generally group dances, with no solo or couple dances. During events like Bull Hunting (剽牛), Festivals, or Weddings, the entire community gathers in a circle, singing and dancing together, with the Mang Luo (芒锣) providing the rhythmic accompaniment. These dances are lively and full of joy.

Development

In 2019, Dulongjiang Township (独龙江乡) became the first town in Yunnan to open a 5G trial base station, marking a significant milestone for the area. On September 29, 2019, the main settlement of the Dulong people in Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture (怒江傈僳族自治州), Gongshan Dulong and Nu Autonomous County (贡山独龙族怒族自治县), and Dulongjiang Township (独龙江乡) celebrated the opening of the Dibuli Station (迪布里基站), completing the region’s mobile network coverage and resolving connectivity issues in the northern part of Dulongjiang Township.