Hui Ethnic Minority

Historical Development

The History of the Hui Ethnic Group

The Hui people have a long history, with roots going back to the Tang Dynasty (618–907) and evolving significantly during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), when many of the Hui’s ancestors, originally from Central Asia, migrated to China. Over time, the Hui people assimilated with local Chinese cultures and adopted Islam as their primary religion. By the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the Hui had become an established ethnic group in China, with their distinct customs, culture, and language.

Ethnic Language

Language of the Hui People

Today, the Hui people primarily speak Mandarin Chinese (汉语), with various regional dialects depending on the area they live in. During the early migration of the Hui people, Arabic, Persian, and Chinese were all used concurrently. As the Hui continued to live alongside the Han Chinese (汉族), particularly in areas where the Han population was growing, they gradually adopted Chinese as their common language, although they still retain a few Arabic and Persian loanwords.

Hui Language in the Yuan Dynasty

In the Yuan Dynasty, the “Huihui Wen” (回回文), also known as “New Persian” or “Pu Su Man Zi” (普速蛮字), was the written language used by the Hui people. This writing system was used for official documents and translations by dedicated Hui translators working in government offices. The Yuan Dynasty also had an official Huihui National School (回回国子学) and the Huihui National Office (回回国子监), where education focused on New Persian.

The Emergence of the Common Language

By the Ming Dynasty, the use of Chinese as the main language for the Hui was firmly established. Although the government continued to teach and translate Muslim languages, including Arabic and Persian, the Hui people had already adopted Chinese as their shared language.

Jing Tang Yu (经堂语)

Jing Tang Yu (经堂语) refers to a specialized language used in Chinese Islamic mosque education. It is a hybrid language where Arabic or Persian is phonetically transliterated using Chinese characters or where Chinese vocabulary is used to convey the meanings of Persian and Arabic words. This language absorbed and transformed elements from the Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist scriptures, as well as folk expressions.

Xiao Er Jin (小儿锦)

Xiao Er Jin (小儿锦) is a form of writing created by Islamic scholars in China under specific historical conditions. It uses Arabic letters to spell out Chinese sounds and includes Arabic and Persian vocabulary, occasionally mixing in a few Chinese characters. This writing system was not only used for religious texts but also for communication and note-taking.

Influence from Other Languages

As the Hui people lived alongside many other ethnic groups, they often used the languages of the surrounding ethnic groups and were influenced by their cultures. For example:

In Xishuangbanna (西双版纳), Yunnan Province (云南省), the Hui people speak Dai (傣语) and use Dai characters. They also wear Dai ethnic clothing and live in traditional Dai bamboo houses.

In Eryuan County (洱源县), Yunnan, the Hui wear Bai ethnic clothing and speak the Bai language (白族语).

In Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (迪庆藏族自治州) and Lhasa (拉萨) in Tibet, Hui people use Tibetan (藏语).

In Sichuan’s Liangshan (四川凉山), where they live alongside the Yi (彝族), the Hui people speak Yi (彝语) as well.

In Inner Mongolia (内蒙古) and Xinjiang (新疆), many Hui people are also fluent in Mongolian (蒙古语), Uighur (维吾尔语), or Kazakh (哈萨克语).

Customs and Culture

Role of Islam in Hui Culture

Islam has played a significant role in the formation and development of the Hui ethnic group. Since their formation, Hui communities have continued to follow this faith. In the Tang Dynasty (618-907), Islam was referred to as “Da Shi Fa” (大食法). During the Yuan (1271–1368) and Ming (1368–1644) Dynasties, it was called “Huihui Fa” (回回法) or “Huihui religion.” The core beliefs of the Hui people are based on Islamic principles, including sincerity, reciting declarations of faith, and actions in accordance with religious guidelines.

The Six Core Beliefs

Belief in Allah (God): The central belief is that Allah is the one and only God, who created the heavens, the earth, and everything in the universe. The Hui people follow the creed, “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger.”

Belief in the Celestial Realm: The belief that beyond the human world exists a mystical realm created by Allah, populated by celestial beings who govern the natural world and all phenomena according to Allah’s will.

Belief in the Quran: The Hui people believe in the Quran, the holy book of Islam, as well as previous sacred texts. They also place significant importance on Hadith, which records the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad.

Belief in Resurrection: The Hui believe that the universe and all living things will one day be destroyed, after which Allah will resurrect all life. This belief extends to the resurrection of people after death.

Belief in Predestination: The Hui believe that Allah has already predetermined their lifespan, wealth, status, and fate before they are born.

The Five Pillars of Islam

In daily life, the Hui people practice the Five Pillars of Islam, which include:

Shahada (Faith Declaration): All Hui Muslims, young and old, are required to recite the declaration of faith, affirming that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger.

Salat (Prayer): Hui Muslims perform daily prayers at specific times—morning, noon, afternoon, evening, and night. Additionally, they gather every Friday for the Jumu’ah (weekly congregational prayer) and celebrate the Eid al-Fitr (开斋节) and Eid al-Adha (古尔邦节) annually.

Sawm (Fasting): Fasting during Ramadan (莱麦丹月) is one of the core practices, where Muslims refrain from food, drink, and sexual relations from dawn until sunset.

Zakat (Charity): A form of almsgiving or “poor tax” that Hui Muslims give to the needy, including the poor, debtors, and those in need of freedom from slavery. This also supports charitable causes like building bridges, education, and public welfare.

Hajj (Pilgrimage): Muslims who are physically and financially able must make a pilgrimage to Mecca (麦加) at least once in their lifetime.

Role of the Mosque in Hui Culture

The mosque is central to Hui religious and community life. It is not only the place for daily prayers, congregational prayers on Fridays, and festivals but also serves as an educational and cultural center. Historically, mosques were called Li Tang (礼堂) during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Li Bai Tang (礼拜堂) during the Song Dynasty (960–1279), and Li Bai Si (礼拜寺) during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). The term “Qing Zhen Si” (清真寺), or mosque, has been commonly used since the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644).

In addition to being a place for worship, mosques also function as centers for religious education, the dissemination of Islamic knowledge, and the training of religious professionals. Imams (阿訇) lead religious lectures (瓦尔兹) and perform important life events, including marriages, funerals, and slaughtering animals for consumption.

Jing Tang Education (经堂教育)

Jing Tang education refers to the religious education system in the mosque, where Hui Muslim children are taught the Islamic classics, religious laws, and Islamic history. It was first introduced in Weicheng (渭城) by Hu Dengzhou in the 16th century and later spread to other regions, leading to the formation of distinct schools in Shaanxi, Shandong, and Yunnan provinces. Today, many mosques still host Jing Tang schools, which are divided into universities, middle schools, and primary schools. This education form has had a profound and lasting impact on Hui Muslim education in China.

Traditional Hui Industries and Commerce

While the Hui people have traditionally been primarily an agricultural society, they are also well-known for their commercial expertise. During the Tang and Song Dynasties (618-1279), Hui merchants were active along the Silk Road and Spice Route, trading goods such as silk, spices, jewels, and ivory.

By the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), Hui merchants had expanded their activities across China, trading in goods such as gold, silver, grain, skins, and leather. This trade played an important role in connecting China with the wider world, helping promote cultural exchange and economic development.

Key Industries in Hui Commerce

The Hui people have been involved in several key industries throughout Chinese history, including:

Jewelry Trade: By the 7th century, Persian merchants had settled in cities like Yangzhou (扬州) and Chang’an (长安), where they traded jewels. By the early 20th century, approximately 70% of Beijing’s jewelry businesses were operated by Hui people.

Spice Trade: Hui traders also dominated the spice market, and their businesses were renowned across China and internationally.

Food Industry: Food has long been an important trade for the Hui. Popular sayings reflect this: “The two major industries of the Hui are selling beef and mutton,” and “The Hui sell mutton, steamed buns, and grain.”

Animal Trading: Hui people have historically raised and traded horses, camels, and donkeys. In areas like Baotou (包头), many Hui traders made a living from the livestock trade, especially in Inner Mongolia (内蒙古).

Daily Customs

The Hui people’s customs are deeply influenced by Islamic traditions, with distinct practices regarding food, clothing, naming ceremonies, adulthood rituals, marriage, funerals, and festivals.

Food Taboo

In accordance with Islamic principles, the Hui people avoid consuming pork, horse, donkey, mule, dog, and any animals that have died of natural causes. Additionally, animals that are not slaughtered according to Islamic rites (after invoking Allah’s name) are also prohibited. The Hui refrain from drinking alcohol or smoking. However, they have a strong preference for tea, often serving it to guests. Different regions have unique tea-drinking customs. In the northern Hui regions, they drink Kuan Kuan Tea; in Yunnan, they have roasted tea; and in Hunan, they enjoy Lei Tea. A typical specialty is “Eight-Treasure Covered Bowl Tea”, which contains tea leaves, rock candy, goji berries, walnut kernels, sesame, dates, longan, and raisins (or dried apples).

Clothing and Attire

Hui women typically wear a white round cap called a “Tu Kou Hat” (搭盖头), often paired with a headscarf. The hats come in green, black, and white, which signify different life stages: green for young girls, black for married women, and white for elderly women. These hats are made from high-quality materials like silk, chiffon, or Terylene. The hats for older women are longer, extending to the back, while younger women’s hats are shorter, covering only the neck. The color white holds significance in Islam as a symbol of purity, and it is the preferred color in Hui attire. Hui men wear a small white hat, commonly known as a “Huihui Hat” (回回帽), which comes in different colors, including white, gray, blue, green, and black. This hat is worn according to the seasons, with white being most common in spring, summer, and autumn, and gray or black in winter.

Naming Ceremony

According to Islamic tradition, a Hui baby must be named within three days of birth by an Imam (阿訇). The naming ceremony begins with the father bringing the baby to the threshold of the home, where the Imam whispers the declaration of faith into the baby’s ears: “Ban Ke” (宣礼词) in the right ear and “Sha Mai Ti” (教民汇聚到清真寺的招呼词) in the left ear. This act symbolizes welcoming the child into the Muslim community. After the naming, the family celebrates with a feast, often involving the slaughter of a sheep, and the sharing of sweets like red dates, sugar, brown sugar, and rock candy with friends and neighbors.

Wedding Customs

Hui weddings vary by region but generally follow similar procedures. The process includes asking a matchmaker to propose, exchanging tea to confirm the engagement, the wedding ceremony, and Nikah (尼卡哈), where the couple’s marriage contract is signed. After the ceremony, the newlyweds enter their room while the Imam recites verses from the Quran and offers blessings. The family and guests then celebrate with food, dancing, and other joyful activities.

Mourning and Funeral Rites

Hui people avoid using the term “death”, instead referring to it as “Wu Chang” (无常), meaning the inevitable or the transient. Funerals follow specific rituals, including washing the body, preparing it for burial, and honoring the deceased. The Imam leads the funeral service, and the community gathers for prayers. Mourning lasts for a period, with significant observances on the “7th day”, “40th day”, “100th day”, and anniversary of the death. Special commemorative services are also held, with the scale and activities depending on the family’s wishes.

Important Beliefs and Practices

Tobacco and Alcohol: The Hui people do not smoke or drink alcohol, in line with Islamic prohibitions.

Halal Meat: All meat consumed must be slaughtered according to Islamic methods, with Allah’s name invoked before the animal is killed.

Hospitality: The Hui culture places a significant emphasis on hospitality, with tea being a central element of social interactions.

Ethnic Festivals

As followers of Islam, the Hui people observe three major religious festivals each year: Eid al-Fitr (开斋节), Eid al-Adha (古尔邦节), and the Mawlid al-Nabi (圣纪节). These festivals follow the Islamic lunar calendar.

Eid al-Fitr (开斋节)

Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan (斋月), the holy month of fasting. All Hui Muslims who are over the age of 12 (for males) and 9 (for females) observe fasting during this month. Once Ramadan ends, Eid al-Fitr is celebrated with a special prayer ceremony at the mosque. The day begins at dawn with a ritual washing, followed by changing into new clothes and heading to the mosque for the communal prayers. After the prayers, families gather for festive meals. It is customary to prepare oil cakes, fried dough twists, and sweet pastries during this time.

Eid al-Adha (古尔邦节)

Eid al-Adha, also known as the Festival of Sacrifice, is celebrated approximately 70 days after Eid al-Fitr. It begins with a morning ritual of cleansing and dressing in clean clothes before heading to the mosque for prayers. Afterward, a sacrifice ceremony is held, where animals such as sheep or cows are slaughtered. The meat is divided into three parts: one for the family, one for friends and relatives, and one portion is donated to the poor. This festival is a significant time for the Hui people to practice charity and community support.

Mawlid al-Nabi (圣纪节)

The Mawlid al-Nabi, also known as the Prophet Muhammad’s Birthday and death anniversary, is observed on the 12th day of the Islamic month of Rabi al-Awwal (3月12日). The day is dedicated to celebrating the life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. On this day, the community gathers at the mosque for prayers, to recite verses from the Quran, and to learn about the Prophet’s life and teachings. The occasion is also marked by repentance and self-reflection. After the prayers, a communal meal is shared to mark the occasion.

Other Important Festivals

Ashura (阿术拉日): This day, typically observed on the 10th of Muharram (伊斯兰教历1月10日), commemorates the salvation of several prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses. It is also known as the day when Allah created the earth, heaven, and hell. On this day, Hui Muslims prepare a dish called Ashura porridge (阿术拉饭), which is made from various beans and symbolically reflects the hardships and blessings of life.

Lailat al-Miraj (登霄节): This festival marks Muhammad’s ascension to heaven. It is observed by gathering at the mosque for prayers and lectures, where the Imam explains the significance of this miraculous event. This day is often referred to as the “Night of Ascension”.

Fatimah’s Day (法图麦节): Also known as “Women’s Saint Day” (女圣纪), this festival honors Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. It is observed during the 14th day of Ramadan. Women gather to prepare special foods, including fried dough, and share them with the community while offering prayers and remembering Fatimah’s life and virtues.

Qing Dynasty Memorial Day (亡人节): In regions like Kunming, Wenshan, Dali, and Baoshan, Hui Muslims commemorate the Martyrs of the Qing Dynasty, who were killed by the Qing army during the reign of Emperor Xianfeng and Emperor Tongzhi. The day is observed by visiting graves, holding memorial services, and reciting the Quran. In Kunming, the South City Mosque hosts a gathering led by an Imam who leads prayers, and then a procession to the Ma Yuan Cemetery for further commemorative acts.

Traditional Musical Instruments

The Hui people, with their rich cultural heritage, have developed a variety of traditional musical instruments that reflect their Islamic and ethnic identity. Here are some notable instruments from their musical tradition:

Huobu (火不思)

Also known as Humbusi (浑不似), the Huobu is a type of Persian lute (柳特), introduced into China during the Yuan Dynasty. It resembles a pipa (琵琶), with a neck but no frets, a small groove, and a round body like half a bottle cap. Its surface is made of animal skin, and it has four strings. This instrument was initially used in the Yuan Imperial Court for ceremonial music.

Huchin (胡琴)

Similar in form to the Huobu, the Huchin has a curled neck, a dragon-shaped head, and two strings, played with a bow made from horsehair. Originally part of the Yuan Dynasty court ensemble, it gradually became one of China’s main ethnic instruments.

Niutou Xun (牛头埙)

The Niutou Xun (also known as Waming 哇鸣) is a traditional Hui folk instrument. It is made from yellow clay and shaped like a cow’s head, flat beans, or egg. It has a blowing hole and several small finger holes. The range is limited, producing a quiet sound, and is often used to play simple melodies. Due to its easy construction and availability of materials, it is popular among the Hui people.

Kou Xian (口弦)

Also called Koukou or Kou Xianzi, the Kou Xian is a small metal spring instrument shaped like a pair of tongs, with a reed affixed to it. It is played by placing it against the lips and plucking the reed with the fingers. The sound is soft and melodic, making it popular among young couples and especially loved by Hui women and children.

Yangtou Xianzi (羊头弦子)

This instrument features a wooden body, with an oval-shaped soundbox, covered with lambskin. The head is shaped like a sheep’s head and has two tuning pegs for adjusting the strings. Played with a pick or thumb, the Yangtou Xianzi produces a crisp, clear sound, suitable for both solo and accompanying singing.

Mimi Zi (咪咪子)

The Mimi Zi is a wind instrument made from reed, willow bark, or wheat stems. The middle part is hollowed out and thinned, with both ends pinched together and heated over a flame to form an olive shape. It has a simple blowhole and three holes on the top section and four on the bottom. The Mimi Zi produces a trembling sound, often used in lyrical and melancholic melodies.

Xiao Xiao Zi (萧萧子)

Also known as Mimi or Bend Xiao (弯萧), the Xiao Xiao Zi is a bamboo pipe instrument. The bamboo is bent and has six finger holes, played vertically. It does not have a reed, and its tone is solid and resonant, producing a deep, rich sound.

Suo Le (索勒)

The Suo Le is a type of wooden pipe instrument, resembling a suona (唢呐), but with a gourd at the bottom. It has eight finger holes (seven in the front and one in the back). The Suo Le produces a powerful, rich tone and is capable of playing two octaves.

Jiao Di (角笛)

The Jiao Di is a wind instrument that evolved from the Mimi instrument. It is typically made of wood and shaped like a horn. There are both single-tube and double-tube versions. The single-tube Jiao Di is around 33 cm long and has six finger holes, producing a bright and clear sound. The double-tube version is much longer (about 83 cm) and has a lower, more resonant sound, with each tube having six finger holes.

San Huan (三环)

The San Huan is a percussion instrument made up of three iron rings. The main ring is larger, and the two smaller rings hang from it. Each of the rings is fitted with small bells. The instrument is shaken to produce rhythmic sounds, commonly used in ensemble music or dance accompaniment.

Huan Cha (环镲)

The Huan Cha is a percussion instrument made of cymbals and copper rings. The cymbals vary in size, with the larger ones about 40 cm in diameter. These cymbals are used in pairs, producing a loud crashing sound when shaken.

Huan Gu (环鼓)

The Huan Gu is a drum with a wooden body, shaped like a long tube. Both ends are fitted with brass rings, and the drumhead is made from lambskin. It is played by striking with the hand and is often used for accompaniment in performing arts and ceremonial dances.

Achievements

The Hui ethnic minority has made significant contributions to various fields, especially in the areas of science, technology, literature, art, and sports. Below are some of their major accomplishments:

Contributions to Science and Technology

The Hui people have made notable advancements in science and technology. For instance, the astronomer Zhamarudin (扎马鲁丁) contributed greatly to Chinese astronomy by presenting the “Ten Thousand Year Calendar” (万年历) to Emperor Yuan Shizu (元世祖) during the Yuan Dynasty. He established an observatory and invented seven astronomical instruments, including the Armillary Sphere (浑天仪), Sextant (斜纬仪), Theodolite (平纬仪), Globe (地球仪), Direction Finder (方位仪), Celestial Sphere (天球仪), and Telescope (观象仪), which played a critical role in the history of Chinese astronomy.

In the realm of architecture, Yihe Die’er Ding (亦黑迭儿丁), a famous architect of the Yuan Dynasty, was the chief designer and project manager for the Imperial Palace (元大都宫殿) and its inner city, setting the foundation for the architectural development of Beijing (北京).

Additionally, Hui medical practitioners have contributed significantly to both surgery and the use of herbal medicine, creating their own systems of medical practice with remarkable effectiveness.

Achievements in Culture and Arts

The Hui people have excelled in literature, philosophy, and the arts. During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, several prominent figures emerged, such as Sa Dula (萨都剌), Gao Kegong (高克恭), Ding Henen (丁鹤年), Ding Peng (丁澎), and Gai Qi (改琦). These individuals made significant contributions to various intellectual and artistic movements.

Shan Si (赡思), an encyclopedic scholar of the Yuan Dynasty, excelled in Confucian classics, history, astronomy, geography, hydraulics, and mathematics, making outstanding achievements in several fields.

In the Ming Dynasty, Li Zhi (李贽), a renowned philosopher, developed the concept of a materialistic universe based on the Yin-Yang (阴阳) duality, advocating for equality in society and rejecting feudal dogma. He also promoted ideas about gender equality, freedom of thought, and the importance of individual expression in literature. His writings, such as “Li’s Book Burning” (李氏焚书) and “The Collected Works of Li” (李氏文集), have had a profound influence on social movements and enlightenment thought, particularly during the May Fourth Movement (五四运动).

Hui Folk Music and Art

The Hui people, especially those from the northwest regions such as Gansu (甘肃), Qinghai (青海), Ningxia (宁夏), and Xinjiang (新疆), have developed a rich tradition of folk music. One of the most prominent genres is “Hua’er” (花儿), a traditional folk song, often sung with a hand behind the ear and facing the mountains. Over centuries, the music has developed into various regional styles, such as Hezhou Hua’er (河州花儿), Lianhua Mountain Hua’er (莲花山花儿), Ningxia Hua’er (宁夏花儿), and Qinghai Hua’er (青海花儿).

Another important form of folk music is the “Banquet Songs” (宴席曲), which are performed at festive events such as weddings, particularly in regions like Gansu, Qinghai, and Ningxia. These songs often involve solo performances, duets, and group singing, creating a lively atmosphere at celebratory events.

Traditional Sports and Martial Arts

The Hui people have a long tradition of martial arts, and many mosques (清真寺) have martial arts halls where Imams (阿訇) also serve as martial arts instructors. Hui martial arts, known as the “Kunlun School” (昆仑派), is one of China’s four major martial arts schools. It includes forms such as Zha Quan (查拳), Hui 18 Elbows (回回十八肘), Jiao Men Spring Leg (教门弹腿), and Ba Ji Quan (八极拳). These martial arts were once included in military training programs during the Republic of China (民国).

Traditional Hui sports include “Taqiao” (踏脚), Wooden Ball (打木球), and Guanniu (掼牛). In Taqiao, players use various footwork techniques to outmaneuver opponents, and in Wooden Ball, players strike a wooden ball using sticks to score points, somewhat resembling hockey. Guanniu involves an annual festival during Eid al-Adha (宰牲节), where participants compete to knock a bull over using strength and technique.

Notable Figures

As society and cultural endeavors have developed, the Hui ethnic group has continuously produced outstanding individuals who have made remarkable achievements in various fields.

Historians

Bai Shouyi (白寿彝): A prominent historian and expert on Chinese history.

Yang Zhijiu (杨志玖): A well-known historian, specializing in Chinese historical research.

Translators and Educators

Ma Jian (马坚): A respected translator, known for his contributions to the translation of classic texts.

Na Zhong (纳忠): A notable educator and translator who helped introduce international literature to Chinese readers.

“Father of Chinese Symphony” (Music Conductor)

Li Delun (李德伦): A renowned conductor, often referred to as the “Father of Chinese Symphony” for his immense contributions to Chinese classical music.

Xiangsheng (Chinese Crosstalk) Artist

Ma Sanli (马三立): A legendary xiangsheng artist, known for his exceptional skills in this traditional Chinese comedic performance.

Writers

Sha Yexin (沙叶新): A well-regarded writer, particularly known for his work in modern Chinese literature.

Zhang Chengzhi (张承志): A famous writer, known for his deep exploration of Hui culture and the Muslim experience in China.

Huo Da (霍达): A notable author and cultural commentator.

Bai Xianyong (白先勇): A writer and playwright renowned for his literary works that explore the complexities of identity and human experience.

Academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences

Zhang Guangxue (张广学): A distinguished academician known for his contributions to scientific research.

Jiang Xikui (蒋锡夔): A well-respected scientist and academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

Liu Guangjun (刘广均): A leading scientist and academician with significant achievements in his field.

Academicians of the Chinese Academy of Engineering

Wang Shiwen (王士雯): A respected academician and engineer known for his work in civil engineering and infrastructure development.

Zhan Tao (展涛): A prominent mathematician with substantial contributions to mathematical theory and practice.