Achang Ethnic Minority

Overview

The Achang (阿昌族) is one of the seven small-population ethnic minorities unique to Yunnan Province. Their language, Achang language, belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, with two dialects: Lianghe (梁河) and Husa (户撒). In addition to their native language, many Achang people are fluent in Chinese and Dai. They do not have a written script of their own, instead using Chinese characters.

The Achang people primarily reside in the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture (德宏傣族景颇族自治州) in Yunnan, specifically in Longchuan County (陇川县) in the Husa Achang Township, Lianghe County (梁河县) in the Nang Song Achang Township, and Jiubao Achang Township. They can also be found in other areas such as Mangshi (芒市), Yingjiang (盈江), Tengchong (腾冲), Longling (龙陵), and Yunlong (云龙). A smaller population of Achang people also live in Shan State (掸邦), Myanmar.

Famous for their iron craftsmanship, the Achang are particularly renowned for their production of the Husa Knife (户撒刀). According to the 2010 Census, the total population of the Achang was 39,555. The 2021 China Statistical Yearbook recorded the population as 43,775, with 21,840 men and 21,935 women.

Ethnic Name

Historically, the Achang were referred to by various names in ancient Chinese texts, including “Echang,” “Echang,” “Echang,” and “Echang.” In addition, the Achang have different self-designations based on regional dialects. The people of the Husa region refer to themselves as “Mengsa,” “Daisa,” and “Mengsa Dan,” while those in Lianghe call themselves “Hansa,” “Achang,” and “Echang.” In 1953, the government unified the name to Achang based on the wishes of the people.

History of the Achang Ethnic Minority

Origins and Migration

The Achang ethnic group traces its roots to the ancient Di-Qiang (氐羌) tribes and has historical connections with the “Xun Chuan Man” (寻传蛮) from the Nanzhao (南诏) and Dali (大理) kingdoms. In Tang Dynasty (618-907), these early tribes were referred to as the “Xun Chuan Man” and are considered the ancestors of both the Achang and the Jingpo (景颇) ethnic groups. The name Achang first appeared in Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) documents, such as Zhaobu Zonglu (《招捕总录》) and the Yuan Shi: Geography (《元史·地理志》).

Throughout their history, the Achang people have interacted and assimilated with various other ethnic groups. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, merchants from central China started trading with the Achang people in Yunlong (云龙) and surrounding areas. In the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), large-scale migration of Han Chinese settlers into the region led to further cultural exchange, with some Achang people integrating into Han society while some Han people adopted Achang customs.

Early Society and Culture

The Achang people’s early society was based on hunting and gathering, later transitioning to agriculture, particularly growing taro and other root vegetables. In the early stages, the Achang practiced group marriage, where multiple men and women formed familial units, with women holding leadership roles in the family and community. This reflects the remnants of a matriarchal society. Many of these social customs, such as unique terms for familial relationships (e.g., uncles, aunts, and cousins), can still be found in the Achang language and marriage practices, even after the founding of New China.

Political History and Resistance

During the Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties, the Achang region was under the control of the Nanzhao and Dali kingdoms. During the Nanzhao period, Achang people were subjected to harsh exploitation and slavery. The Dali Kingdom also imposed tribute on the Achang people in the Yunlong region.

In the Ming Dynasty, the Tusi system (土司制度) was established in the Dehong region, leading to the incorporation of the Achang into the Ming military and administrative structure. The Achang people were subjected to the rule of local chiefs, who were often of Han or Dai origin. Over time, the Achang adopted new agricultural practices from Han settlers, including rice farming and the use of iron tools.

During the Qing Dynasty, the Tusi system persisted, and local Achang leaders maintained control over their regions, with some adapting to the Qing imperial system. Throughout the Qing Dynasty, the Achang people faced significant social and economic struggles, with a series of uprisings against feudal rulers and foreign invaders.

Armed Resistance Against Foreign Invasions

In the late 19th century, during the British colonial expansion, the Achang people were actively involved in resisting foreign invasions, particularly in Dehong and Longchuan (陇川). In 1874, the British colonial officer Bai Lang led an armed expedition from Myanmar into Yunnan, where they encountered fierce opposition from the local ethnic groups, including the Achang, Jingpo, and Dai peoples. This event, known as the “Ma Jiali Incident” (马嘉理事件), marked a significant moment in the resistance to British imperialism.

In 1900, the British again invaded Tengchong County (腾冲), burning villages and killing civilians. The Achang people, led by Zuo Xiaocheng, fought back, resulting in the heroic sacrifice of over 80 defenders. This was another key moment in the defense of their land against colonial powers.

During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), the Achang people, along with other ethnic groups in Yunnan, fought against the Japanese invaders. The Achang were actively involved in guerrilla warfare, ambushing Japanese forces and protecting their homeland from occupation.

Liberation and the Founding of the People’s Republic of China

In 1949, as the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (中国人民解放军) advanced into Dehong, the Achang people and other ethnic groups in the region successfully overcame local rulers and obtained liberation. The Achang, along with other minority groups, contributed significantly to the fight for independence and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949.

Economic Transition from Early Practices

During the Ming Dynasty, the Achang people transitioned from a hunting and gathering economy to slash-and-burn agriculture. They began cultivating crops with simple tools, such as hoes and digging sticks. In Yunlong (云龙), which produced salt, some Achang people became involved in the salt trade.

With the large migration of Han Chinese settlers during the Ming Dynasty, advanced agricultural tools and techniques were introduced. The Achang started using iron farming tools, including plows, hoes, sickles, shovels, knives, and machetes. The Achang living in the plains cultivated wet rice fields, while those in the mountains improved their farming techniques, moving away from the traditional slash-and-burn practices. Their primary crop was rice, supplemented by corn, dry rice, taro, and various vegetables.

The Achang people in Jiubao (九保) and Nang Song (囊宋) regions, situated in the semi-mountainous areas, were known for cultivating high-quality rice varieties like the famous “Hao Gong’an” rice, which was beloved by local ethnic groups and earned them the title of “Rice Kings.” Besides agriculture, the Achang also raised livestock such as water buffalo, cattle, mules, and pigs, along with poultry like chickens, ducks, and geese.

Traditional Handicrafts and Small-Scale Industry

The Achang people are skilled in producing various handicrafts. In the Husa Achang region, they specialized in making iron products, including knives, and they became famous for their Husa knives (户撒刀), which were not only popular locally but also sold in neighboring countries like Myanmar. They also grew tobacco, producing high-quality grass tobacco for local consumption and trade.

Women in the Lianghe (梁河) region were involved in weaving cloth, dyeing textiles, and making baskets and other bamboo products. These were primarily for self-consumption, but some were sold in local markets.

Modern Economic Changes

In recent years, especially since the Reform and Opening-up policy (改革开放), the Achang economy has diversified. The Dehong region, where the Achang reside, saw the rise of a commodity economy, influenced by Han Chinese trading practices and the colonial British capitalist economy in Myanmar. This led to a rapid growth in trade relations with neighboring regions and ethnic groups.

During the Republic of China (民国时期), the Achang people faced harsh taxes imposed by the local government. They were burdened by “official rent”, “land foundation silver”, and other fees. Villages had to pay additional taxes for specific activities such as “wedding”, “funeral”, and “festival offerings”. The Achang also had to perform labor duties for the local authorities, which led to resentment against both the local landlords and the government.

Agricultural Transformation

In the post-1949 era, the Achang people have experienced significant agricultural changes. Since the 1980s, the introduction of the Household Responsibility System allowed the Achang to move beyond traditional grain farming. The cultivation of economic crops like sugarcane, tea, rapeseed, tobacco, and fruit and vegetables has become more widespread. The Husa township started developing flue-cured tobacco as an economic driver in the early 1990s, and by 1997, a new, high-yield variety of rapeseed was introduced, increasing the annual income for many families.

In Lianghe (梁河), despite the region’s long history of food scarcity, local farmers adapted to land constraints and developed farming methods suited to the mountainous terrain. They have introduced hybrid rice and hybrid corn to improve yields and are now diversifying their production with crops like sugarcane and tea. This has helped reduce poverty and improve living standards.

Ironwork and Handicrafts

The Achang people are renowned for their ironworking skills, producing highly durable tools and knives. Their famous Husa knives are well-regarded for their sharpness and beauty. These knives are especially popular among neighboring ethnic groups like the Dai, Han, Jingpo, De’ang, and even the Lisu people in Nujiang (怒江). Historically, these knives were also traded across the border into Myanmar.

After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the ironwork industry experienced significant growth. In 1954, the first ironworking cooperative was established in Husa. By the early 2000s, the ironwork industry in the region had expanded, with many local workshops producing a variety of products, including farming tools, knives, and silver jewelry. These products gained recognition both within China and abroad.

Modern Economy and Trade

In the post-reform era, Husa township began to develop a robust local trade market, with Achang people opening stores that sold a variety of goods, from agricultural tools to food and consumer products. The introduction of new businesses, such as motor vehicle transportation and small-scale manufacturing, has contributed to the region’s economic growth.

In the 1990s, several Achang communities in Husa, Jiubao, and Nang Song developed local marketplaces, transforming them into regional trade hubs. These markets became centers for the sale of Husa knives, agricultural tools, and machinery.

Achang people are also engaged in cross-border trade, particularly in wood, medicinal herbs, textiles, and steel products. The “Husa rice noodles”, a popular local dish, has also gained recognition, and some Achang entrepreneurs have expanded their businesses by opening noodle shops in nearby towns such as Mangshi (芒市), where they have gained a loyal customer base.

By the early 21st century, the Lianghe area had developed 640 local businesses, with a total output value of 22.42 million yuan, including teahouses, sugar factories, and food processing plants.

Feudal Era and Traditional Social Organization

The Achang people traditionally organized their society around patrilineal family units, each typically consisting of a husband and wife, along with their children. This patriarchal family system often included extended generations, such as grandparents, parents, and children. The family structure was highly important, and families within the same clan or surname often lived close together, forming cohesive village communities based on kinship.

In the Lianghe (梁河) region, the Achang people once had a feudal-like system known as family associations (家会). These associations, usually composed of people with the same surname from multiple villages, played a crucial role in the community. There were two types of associations: one with a formal organizational structure, including chiefs, secretaries, cultural officers, and judicial officers. These associations often had written charters and enforced rules that protected traditional customs and governance. The other type of association was less formal, with only a couple of leaders and no official charter.

In these societies, the family association maintained strict rules, such as punishing individuals who disrespected family authority or were disobedient. In some cases, a fine or public punishment would be imposed for those found guilty of violating the rules. These associations were also responsible for resolving local disputes and keeping order within the village.

Early Communal Life and Local Governance

Historically, the Husa (户撒) area in Achang society went through a primitive communal period where land was collectively owned by the village community. Individuals only had the right to use the land. These villages were formed by several clans, each selecting a leader (referred to as “U Mong Zuo”), who would consult with others to manage village affairs. The leader was also in charge of agricultural activities and worshiping the village deity, a practice that symbolized authority and governance within the village.

The Rise of the Tusi System during the Ming and Qing Dynasties

During the Ming (明) and Qing (清) Dynasties, the central government began to establish the Tusi system in areas populated by the Achang. The Tusi system involved local chieftains who were given authority over specific ethnic groups. By the late Qing Dynasty, Dehong (德宏) region was divided into ten Tusi territories, but the South Dian (南甸), Husa, and Lasa (腊萨) territories were the most significant and direct in their control over the Achang. Unlike other regions where the Tusi system had a single supreme leader, the Tusi here operated independently from one another, often engaging in inter-marriage or mutual alliances to strengthen their power.

Each Tusi territory had its own administrative and organizational systems. In the South Dian (南甸) region, for instance, the Tusi was the highest authority. Below him, various officials were appointed, such as guards, tribal officials, and clerks. These officials were responsible for managing village affairs, collecting taxes, and overseeing local communities. The Tusi system in Achang areas was similar to a feudal system, with distinct administrative structures and personnel.

The Republic of China Period (1912-1949)

During the Republic of China period, several local administrative bodies were established in the Dehong area. These bodies continued to use the Tusi’s traditional structures while implementing the “Baojia System” for social organization and control. This system divided the population into “Bao” (communities) and “Jia” (households), with leaders appointed to oversee governance and order within the communities.

Despite these reforms, the Tusi systems and their influence persisted, particularly in the Husa, Lasa, and South Dian areas, where the chieftains retained political power. They still held substantial authority over the local population, controlling land, resources, and political affairs.

The People’s Republic of China (Post-1949)

After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the People’s Liberation Army entered the Achang’s homeland in the Dehong region. In 1951, the Chinese government sent a Central Ethnic Delegation to visit the Achang and other ethnic minorities, promoting communist policies and alleviating the discriminatory practices that the Achang people had suffered from. In 1952, the Husa region was designated as a minority autonomous region for the Achang people.

Following the government’s initiatives, several Achang minority townships were established in the Dehong region, such as in Mangshi (芒市), Lianghe, and Binggai (丙盖). The government continued to promote ethnic autonomy, ensuring that the Achang people were properly represented in the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture.

In 1988, with further administrative adjustments, the Husa, Lianghe, and Jiubao Achang townships were officially recognized as county-level ethnic autonomous areas, allowing the Achang people to have more local governance over their affairs.

Population Overview

According to the 2000 census, the Achang population was 33,900 individuals, with 17,200 males and 16,700 females, giving a sex ratio of 102.64. Compared to the census conducted a decade earlier, the Achang population grew by 6,200 people, with an annual growth rate of 1.96%.

Of the total population, 2,800 people lived in urban areas, comprising 8.18% of the Achang population, while 31,200 lived in rural areas, making up 91.82%. Compared to the previous census, the proportion of urban dwellers increased by 4.38%.

The Achang people are primarily concentrated in Yunnan Province, where 33,500 Achang people reside, accounting for 98.77% of the total Achang population. The remaining population in other regions is less than 100 people.

Looking at age distribution, 33.28% of the Achang population is under the age of 14, 62.45% is in the working-age group (15-64 years), and 4.26% is aged 65 and above.

Of the population aged 5 and above, 22,600 people are literate, with 3,100 illiterate individuals, which gives an illiteracy rate of 13.56%. The illiteracy rate among adult males is 7.17%, while adult females have a significantly higher illiteracy rate of 20.10%. Among those aged 6 and above, 83.18% have received at least primary school education, 27.15% have received secondary education, 6.46% have completed high school or vocational education, and 1.10% have received higher education.

During the period from November 1, 1999, to October 31, 2000, the Achang population saw 610 births, with a total fertility rate of 2.04.

Religious Beliefs and Cultural Practices

The Achang people’s religious beliefs are influenced by various cultural traditions, leading to a diverse array of religious practices, including nature worship, ancestor worship, Buddhism, Daoism, and spirit worship. Different regions within the Achang community practice varying religious traditions due to the influence of neighboring ethnic groups.

Nature Worship and Ancestor Worship

In regions such as Lianghe (梁河), Mangshi (芒市), and Longling (龙陵), the Achang people primarily follow traditional religious practices, focusing on nature and ancestor worship. They believe that natural elements such as the sun, moon, rivers, mountains, trees, and stones possess spirits with superhuman powers. These spirits can be benevolent or malevolent. Benevolent spirits promote good harvests and protect the land, while malevolent spirits cause illness and death in livestock.

During times of illness or disaster, the Achang people perform rituals to appease these spirits, often sacrificing animals to seek protection or blessings. They worship a variety of deities such as the Sun God, Moon God, Earth God, Stove God, Fire God, Tree God, Stone God, and the God of War, among others. Each village has its own temple or sacred place, where they perform rituals for these gods.

Ancestor Worship

Ancestor worship holds a significant place in Achang culture. The Achang people believe that after death, a person has three souls: one remains at the grave and is worshipped during Qingming Festival (清明节), another is honored at home, and the third is sent to a city god’s temple. Special ceremonies are held annually, such as on July 1 and August 15, for ancestral remembrance.

The Lao and Mi Lao (遮帕麻和遮米麻) are regarded as the ancestral Sky God and Earth Mother, and the Achang people celebrate festivals to honor and remember them. Wolo Festival (窝罗节) is an important event in the Lianghe region, where the Achang people perform grand ceremonies to honor these ancestors.

Influence of Buddhism and Daoism

In the Lasa (腊萨) area, the Achang people have been heavily influenced by Buddhism, especially Theravada Buddhism due to the proximity to the Dai (傣) ethnic group. The local temples and pagodas have architectural similarities to those of the Dai people. Buddhism has a profound impact on the Achang people’s daily lives, with regular religious activities such as “Jin Wa”, “Chu Wa”, and “Shou Bai Chai” (烧白柴). These festivals are occasions for the Achang to contribute financially and materially to support the Buddhist monks.

Buddhism has also played a role in fostering cultural exchanges between the Achang and other ethnic groups, such as the Dai and Han (汉) peoples. In 1998, the Husa township established a Buddhist Association, which has worked to adapt traditional Buddhist teachings to modern societal issues.

In addition to Buddhism, the Achang people in the Husa region also worship Guanyu (关羽), the Earth God, and the God of Wealth, following practices related to Han Buddhism and Daoism. Regular festivals, such as those held for the Jade Emperor, are celebrated in several villages, where professional or semi-professional religious leaders guide the ceremonies.

Cultural Centers and Religious Practices

Religious practices have evolved in the Achang communities, and Buddhist temples in Achang villages have become cultural centers, where religious rituals are not only observed but also serve as focal points for cultural exchange. These temples have facilitated a stronger connection between the Achang people and neighboring ethnic groups. The spread of Buddhist ideas has also brought about increased social integration and mutual influence between the Achang, Dai, and Han peoples.

Food

The Achang (阿昌) people primarily rely on rice as their staple food, complemented by wheat-based products, and they have a strong preference for sour bamboo shoots, pickled vegetables, and roasted pork. Husa (户撒) is famous for its “Hand-Picked Rice Noodles” (过手米线), while Lianghe (梁河) is known for its Yellow Flower Rice Cake (黄花粑粑) and Raw Stone Ginger (生片石姜), which are distinctive ethnic dishes with a unique regional flavor.

The Achang people are fond of drinking alcohol, and most households brew their own rice wine. Married women often chew betel nuts, and it is a common social activity to pass the betel nut around, with blackened teeth considered a beauty standard.

Clothing

The Achang (阿昌) people’s clothing style is unique, with slight variations depending on the region.

Traditionally, Achang men wear blue, white, or black front-opening jackets and black trousers. In the Lasa (腊萨) region, adult men also wear jackets with a left-sided opening. In Husa (户撒), young men prefer to wear white head coverings, while in Lianghe (梁河), young men favor black head coverings.

Women’s attire varies by region. In Husa (户撒), there is little difference in clothing between married and unmarried women, with their clothing resembling that of the nearby Dai (傣) people. Women in both Lasa (腊萨) and Lianghe (梁河) wear long-sleeved, round-collared jackets and tube skirts, accessorized with silver necklaces and bracelets. Married women in both regions style their head coverings differently; for example, women from Lianghe (梁河) wear head coverings approximately 33 cm high, while women from Lasa (腊萨) wear round disc-shaped black head coverings. Young women traditionally wear light-colored front-opening jackets and dark trousers, with embroidered aprons tied around their waists and braided hair decorated with flowers on top.

Since the reform and opening up period, many Achang (阿昌) women have started to use fabric and lace to sew aprons, replacing time-consuming woven aprons. Clothing has become simpler, with trousers replacing tube skirts and improved head coverings. Many young people have adopted Han (汉) and Dai (傣) styles of clothing, though some traditional head decorations are still worn. However, during festivals and when receiving guests, the Achang people continue to wear their traditional costumes.

Architecture

The Achang (阿昌) people typically reside in the plains and semi-mountainous regions. Villages are generally built in sunny areas with ample water sources. Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Achang homes were mostly simple thatched huts, constructed with bamboo and wood frames, mud walls, and thatched roofs. After 1949, the number of thatched houses gradually decreased, and by the reform and opening up period, they almost disappeared.

The typical Achang (阿昌) house consists of a main house and two side rooms, forming a traditional courtyard layout. These houses are usually built with a combination of earth and wood or brick and wood, with some featuring brick-concrete flat roofs. The main house is carefully oriented, with the front door traditionally opening toward the mountain (迎山开门), following ancient customs. The house generally has three rooms, with the central room serving as the living room and often containing an altar and a hearth. The hearth is kept burning year-round and serves as a place for eating, warming, and holding ceremonies. On either side of the living room are the bedrooms for elderly family members and unmarried children. The upper rooms of the side buildings serve as guest rooms or storage for miscellaneous items, while the lower level may house livestock, poultry, or workshops for iron production. When building new homes, the Achang (阿昌) people also have customs like setting off firecrackers and hanging red decorations to celebrate.

Literature

The Achang (阿昌) people have a rich tradition of oral literature, including folk songs, stories, legends, and myths. These works cover a broad range of topics, such as the origin of the universe and all living things, the history of the Achang people, the spirit of resistance against feudal oppression, and the praise of the hardworking and intelligent laborers.

Types of Literature

The Achang (阿昌) literature includes epic tales, stories, ballads, dramas, myths, and fables. The most famous myth is the creation myth titled “Zhepa Ma and Zhemi Ma” (《遮帕麻与遮米麻》), which serves as an important source for studying ancient Achang philosophy, literature, and social thought. Other stories, such as Choosing a Leader and Brothers Making Iron, reflect the social life of the Achang people from various perspectives. Additionally, there are many fables and animal stories, in which animals are anthropomorphized and given human-like qualities.

The Achang (阿昌) people’s opera has been influenced by Han (汉), Dai (傣), and Bai (白) cultures. The themes of these operas often revolve around agricultural festivals and the prayers for good harvests, and they are performed in the Achang dialect, making them a beloved activity among the community. “Duige” (对歌), a form of folk song competition, is a favorite activity for young men and women during their leisure time.

Protection and Preservation of Achang Culture

The Husa Knife Forging Technique (户撒刀锻制技艺) and the Achang Epic (《遮帕麻与遮米麻》) have been included in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists. Alongside these, the Achang folk songs (阿昌族民歌) and the Achang dance, called “Deng Wolo” (蹬窝罗), were also listed as part of Yunnan Province’s (云南省) first batch of intangible cultural heritage. Husa Township’s (户撒乡) Xinzhai Hejie Village (新寨贺姐村) has been designated as a traditional Achang cultural protection area.

The government has actively worked to promote and protect Achang (阿昌) traditional culture, nurturing successors in ethnic arts and linking culture with industry to foster the development of ethnic handicrafts.

Although the Achang (阿昌) people did not have their own written language in the past, their rich oral literature was passed down through generations by word of mouth. For a long time after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Achang (阿昌) literature was confined to the collection and organization of folklore, with modern literary creation remaining sparse.

Since the reform and opening up (改革开放), however, a new generation of Achang (阿昌) writers, particularly the younger generation, has become active in the literary world both within Yunnan (云南) and beyond. They have published millions of words in literary works. Notable works include “My Tube Skirt Flower” by Sun Yufei (孙宇飞), which won the Second National Ethnic Literature Award (第二届全国少数民族文学奖), Luohan’s (罗汉) short story collection “Red Tears” (《红泪》), which received the Sixth National Ethnic Literature “Juma Award” (第六届全国少数民族文学“骏马奖”), and “Purple Mist” (《紫雾》), the first long novel by Luohan (罗汉), which also won the Eighth National Ethnic Literature “Juma Award” (第八届全国少数民族文学“骏马奖”). Cao Xianqiang‘s (曹先强) essay “The Tall Jujube Tree of My Hometown” (《故乡那高高的粘枣树》) won the Fifth National Ethnic Literature “Juma Award” (第五届全国少数民族文学“骏马奖”), and his works have also received the Yunnan Provincial Border Literature Award (云南省“边疆文学奖”) twice.

Arts

The Achang (阿昌) people have a rich artistic heritage, with various types of folk songs such as customary songs, love songs, lament songs, and mountain songs. These songs are known for their rhyming and easy-to-remember lyrics, with deep emotions.

Their traditional musical instruments include gourd flute (葫芦箫), bamboo flute (洞箫), three-stringed lute (三弦), two-stringed violin (二胡), elephant foot drum (象脚鼓), gong (锣), cymbals (钹), and suona (唢呐).

The most distinctive Achang dances include the elephant foot drum dance, lion dance, and the spring lantern dance. Traditional sports in Lianghe (梁河) include archery, martial arts, boxing, stick dance, and the Green Dragon Broadsword (青龙大刀).

The Achang people are also skilled in various crafts such as embroidery, lacquerware, dyeing, weaving, carving, and silverware. The patterns are beautiful, and the craftsmanship is meticulous. Particularly, the carving skills are highly advanced, with intricate depictions of various animals and plants found on furniture, buildings, and Buddhist shrines.

In addition, Achang architectural and painting styles carry distinct ethnic features. Achang paintings, often associated with religious themes, are found on Buddhist altars and ritual objects, where depictions of the sun, moon, trees, flowers, and other motifs are common. Paintings on buildings, including landscapes, flowers, birds, and figures, also display unique cultural characteristics.

Customs

Festivals

The Achang (阿昌) people celebrate many festivals, reflecting the influence of Han (汉), Dai (傣), and Buddhist cultures. In the Husa (户撒) region, there are numerous festivals, such as market festivals, water-splashing festivals, in-and-out festivals, white wood burning festivals, torch festivals, Yellow Single Exchange, New Year festivals, and flower watering festivals, all related to the Theravada Buddhist belief.

Among them, the “Zuobai” (做摆) activity has grown in scale and has become an important way for villages and the Achang people to interact with the Dai people.

The most grand festival of the Achang people is the “Alu Woluo Festival” (阿露窝罗节). This festival combines two important religious events: the “Woluo Festival” (窝罗节) commemorating the legendary ancestors Zhepa Ma and Zhemi Ma, and the “Hui Jie Festival” (会街节) celebrated by Theravada Buddhists in Lancang (陇川) and Husa (户撒). The Alu Woluo Festival is held annually around March 20–21. The festival’s symbols include the Green Dragon and White Elephant. Since March 20, 1994, the Achang people have celebrated this event with vibrant cultural performances, such as dance, song, costume displays, and traditional skill exhibitions, while focusing on cultural inheritance, economic exchanges, and ethnic unity.

Key Achang Festivals and Their Dates

Woluo Festival

Date: 4th day of the first lunar month

Location: Lianghe (梁河), Lancang (陇川), Husa (户撒), and surrounding areas

Activities:

Rituals to honor the ancestors Zhepa Ma and Zhemi Ma.

Performances of the Deng Wolo dance (simulating farming actions).

Singing of epic ballads.

Martial arts and lion dance performances.

Display of agricultural products (“Spring Table”).

Torch Festival

Date: 24th day of the 6th lunar month

Location: Lianghe (梁河), Lancang (陇川), Manga (芒市), Yunlong (云龙), and other Achang settlements

Activities:

Ritual sacrifices involving the slaughter of pigs and cattle for a good harvest.

Nighttime torch processions around the village.

Bullfighting, horse racing, wrestling, and performances of songs and dances.

Alu Woluo Festival (Merged Woluo Festival and Alu Festival)

Date: 10th day of the 9th lunar month (some areas like Lancang adjust to around March 20)

Location: Husa Township (户撒乡) Alu Woluo Square, Lianghe (梁河) Sports Park, and Jinta Square

Activities:

Traditional dress and Deng Wolo dance.

Lion dance, singing of mountain songs, and displays of traditional crafts like Husa knife forging and Hand-Picked Rice Noodles.

New Crop Festival

Date: 7th day of the 7th lunar month (or 15th day of the 8th lunar month)

Location: Lianghe (梁河), Lancang (陇川), Achang villages

Activities:

Rituals to honor the Grain God “Lao Gu Tai” (老姑太).

Picking new rice to cook a meal, which is first offered to the dog to honor the legend of the dog bringing rice seeds.

Water-Splashing Festival

Date: Mid-April (7th day after Tomb Sweeping Day)

Location: Manga (芒市), Lancang (陇川), and other areas celebrated with the Dai (傣) people

Activities:

Flower picking and Buddha bathing ceremonies.

Young men and women splash water on each other as a form of blessing.

Elephant foot drum dance and performances of Husa knife forging.

Other Festivals

Hui Jie Festival

Date: 10th day of the 9th lunar month (often adjusted to coincide with the National Day holiday)

Location: Lancang (陇川) Husa, Lasa (腊萨) regions

Activities:

Processions with Green Dragon and White Elephant props.

Elephant foot drum dance and exchanges of goods.

Etiquette

The Achang (阿昌) people are known for their hospitality. Their warm nature is often expressed through the tradition of greeting guests with alcohol. When relatives or close friends visit, they are always offered rice wine and meals, with hosts giving their best offerings to show respect and sincerity. If a distinguished guest arrives from far away, they are welcomed with a drink called “jin zhai jiu” (进寨酒) at the village entrance.

In the Achang villages, neighbors, friends, and relatives often help each other. It is common for people to lend a hand during important events, such as weddings or house construction. During the off-season of farming, young couples frequently host wedding ceremonies, and invitations to wedding feasts are widely extended. The community exchanges gifts like candies, biscuits, and drinks during visits. It is customary to bring money or everyday items as gifts when attending weddings. These frequent social interactions strengthen the ties within the community.

Marriage

The Achang people traditionally follow a monogamous family structure with patrilineal descent, often practicing younger son inheritance. Some families live with three generations under one roof.

In the past, young men and women were free to date before marriage. In the evenings, young men would gather near the home of a beloved girl or by bamboo groves and play the gourd flute (葫芦笙), playing beautiful tunes to attract the girl. In some areas, young couples would form groups and sing love songs around a campfire, often staying up all night, a practice known as “Chuan Guniang” (串姑娘). However, marriages were traditionally arranged by the parents, leading to phenomena such as “secret marriages” (where young couples ran away together after parental disapproval) and “marriage snatching”.

Though the Achang people still have an arranged marriage system, youth today largely enjoy freedom of courtship and marriage. The traditional customs of Chuan Guniang and song battles have been largely replaced by more modern social gatherings in places like karaoke halls and entertainment venues. Traditionally, the Achang people practiced exogamy (marrying outside the clan), but marriage between the Achang and other ethnic groups like the Han (汉) and Dai (傣) has always been common, reflecting the long-standing close relationship with these ethnic communities.

With increasing population mobility, interethnic and international marriages have become more frequent. Historically, the Achang practiced brother-in-law marriages, uncle-niece marriages, and other similar customs. These practices have gradually fallen out of favor since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, as the negative aspects of such traditions have become more apparent.

Funeral Rites

The Achang people generally practice burial. In areas where Buddhism is followed, after someone passes away, a monk (佛爷) is called to chant prayers, and a lucky day is chosen for the funeral. Other customs include the “qi qi” (接气) ritual, mourning the deceased, and holding memorial ceremonies.

During the funeral, a monk ties a cloth, about three to four meters long, to the coffin, holding it in front of them to lead the procession, symbolizing the journey of the deceased to the “heavenly realm.” As the coffin is carried out of the house, the deceased’s family kneels on either side, and the coffin is carried over their heads, symbolizing the “bridge” for the deceased to cross the river to the afterlife. Every village has a public cemetery where people are buried.

In Lianghe (梁河), when an elderly Achang person passes away, traditionally a fire gun was fired to announce the death, but this has now been replaced by setting off firecrackers. A living priest (活袍) is invited to preside over the memorial ceremony. The most emotional part of the ceremony is the “lament song”, which moves people to tears and expresses deep mourning.

For those who die under unusual or violent circumstances, cremation is practiced as part of the funeral rites.