Wa Ethnic Minority

The Wa ethnic minority is one of the indigenous groups in both China and Myanmar. The Wa people speak the Wa language (佤语), which belongs to the Munda branch of the Austroasiatic language family. Historically, they did not have a written language, instead relying on material objects, wood carvings for record-keeping, and messenger systems for communication.

Geographic Distribution

The Wa people primarily reside in the southwestern region of Yunnan Province (云南省), China, in counties such as Cangyuan (沧源), Ximeng (西盟), Menglian (孟连), Gengma (耿马), Lancang (澜沧), Shuangjiang (双江), Zhenkang (镇康), and Yongde (永德). Additionally, they live in areas of Myanmar, such as Wa State (佤邦) and Shan State (掸邦).

There is also a population of Wa people living in Baoshan (保山), Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture (西双版纳傣族自治州), Kunming (昆明), and Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture (德宏傣族景颇族自治州) in China.

According to the 2021 China Statistical Yearbook, the population of Wa people in China is 430,977.

Language and Religion

The Wa people speak the Wa language, which is also known as Baraoke (巴饶克) or Awa (阿佤). The Wa have no traditional written script, but in 1957, a Latin-based Wa alphabet was created for their language.

In terms of religion, the majority of Wa people follow animistic beliefs (primitive religion), with a small number practicing Buddhism or Christianity.

Festivals

The Wa people celebrate several important festivals, including:

• New Rice Festival (新米节)

• Wa New Year (佤年)

• Lamu Drum Festival (拉木鼓)

• New Water Festival (接新水)

These festivals are deeply rooted in the Wa people’s agricultural practices and spiritual beliefs, where they celebrate the harvest and honor their ancestors.

Wa Ethnic Names

Historically, the Wa people have had different self-designations depending on the region. Generally:

• In the Zhenkang (镇康) and Yongde (永德) areas, they call themselves “Wa” (佤).

• In Gengma (耿马), Shuangjiang (双江), Cangyuan (沧源), and Lancang (澜沧), they refer to themselves as “Barao” (巴饶) or “Burao” (布饶).

• In Ximeng (西盟) and Menglian (孟连), they are known as “Awa” (阿佤), “Awa Lai” (阿佤莱), or “Le Wa” (勒佤).

The Han, Dai, and Lahu ethnic groups also have various ways of referring to the Wa people. For instance:

• The Dai people refer to the Wa in Zhenkang (镇康) and Yongde (永德) as “La” (拉), while the Han people refer to them as “Benren” (本人).

• In other regions, the Wa people are referred to as “Awa” (阿佤) or “Ka Wa” (佧佤). The term “Ka Wa” has two distinctions: “Da Ka Wa” (大佧佤) for Wa people in areas like Ximeng (西盟), and “Xiao Ka Wa” (小佧佤) for those in Cangyuan (沧源), Shuangjiang (双江), Gengma (耿马), Lancang (澜沧), and Menglian (孟连). The term “Ka” (佧) in the Dai language means “slave,” and the term “Ka Wa” often carries a derogatory connotation.

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Wa people generally agreed to be called Wa (佤族).

Origins of the Wa Ethnic Group

The origin of the Wa ethnic group is widely associated with the myth of “Siganli” (司岗里). According to the interpretation by the Wa people in Cangyuan (沧源), “Sigan” means “gourd” and “li” means “coming out,” signifying that people came out of a gourd. The Wa people in Ximeng (西盟) explain that “Sigan” refers to “stone cave,” and “li” means “coming out,” implying that humans emerged from a stone cave. While the various Wa communities have different interpretations of “Siganli,” they all regard Awa Mountain (阿佤山) as the birthplace of humanity. This suggests that the Wa people have lived in Awa Mountain for a long time, possibly as the earliest inhabitants of the region. “Siganli” may also be a reflection of the Wa people’s ancestral cave-dwelling lifestyle.

Early Historical References

In ancient texts, such as the “Classic of Mountains and Seas” (山海经), “Bamboo Annals” (竹书纪年), and “Discourses of the States” (国语), there are references to a group known as “Jiaojiao” (僬侥). This name is phonetically similar to the Wa’s self-designation Barao (巴饶). The Hou Han Shu (后汉书) also records that the “Jiaojiao” people, living outside the Yongchang Commandery (永昌郡), were part of the ethnic groups in the region. Yongchang is located in modern-day Baoshan (保山), Yunnan Province, and the surrounding areas were populated by various Wa-speaking peoples. The “Jiaojiao” are likely the ancestors of the Wa people.

Han Dynasty

In 109 BCE, during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the Yizhou Commandery (益州郡) was established, covering a vast area that included modern-day Baoshan. By 69 CE, the Eastern Han Dynasty established Yongchang Commandery, which included the regions of Lincang (临沧), Pu’er (普洱), Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture (西双版纳傣族自治州), and Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture (德宏傣族景颇族自治州)—areas that were home to the Wa people. During this time, the Ailao people (哀牢人), a term referring to the various tribes in the Ailao Mountains (哀牢山), lived in the region, including the ancestors of the Wa.

Tang Dynasty

In the Tang Dynasty, the area around the Lancang River (澜沧江) and Nujiang River (怒江) was a multi-ethnic region, inhabited by various groups. Records from the “Man Shu” (蛮书) and “New Book of Tang” (新唐书) mention ethnic names that are phonetically similar to the Wa’s self-designation, including Wang, Wangjuzi, and Wangwaiyu, which are closely related to the current Wa name “Wa” (佤).

Yuan Dynasty

During the Yuan Dynasty, southwestern Yunnan was home to a group known as the Puman (蒲蛮), as recorded in the “History of the Yuan” (元史). The Puman were divided into two groups: Shupu (熟蒲) and Shengpu (生蒲). Shupu lived in areas such as Baoshan, Channing, Fengqing, and Yunxian, while Shengpu was located to the south of Shupu. The distinction between Shupu and Shengpu reflects the social development imbalance among the Wa-speaking groups, with Shengpu primarily referring to the Wa people.

Ming Dynasty

In the Ming Dynasty, a military administrative center known as Menglian (孟连) was established to oversee areas inhabited by the Wa people. Additional administrative divisions included Zhenkang (镇康) and Ximeng (西盟), as well as Mengding (孟定). During the Qing Dynasty, these administrative structures were largely maintained with slight adjustments.

British Invasion and Resistance

In 1885, after Britain annexed Myanmar, it turned its attention toward Yunnan, using the China-Myanmar border issue as an excuse to send armed personnel and missionaries into the Awa Mountains, where they surveyed the land, drew maps, and engaged in covert operations. They even attempted to incite the Wa people to break away from China. In 1887, the Zhenbian District (镇边直隶厅) was created to govern regions such as Menglian, Ximeng, Lancang, and Cangyuan.

The Awa Mountains were rich in silver and aluminum deposits, which attracted British imperial interests. In 1934, Britain openly seized the mineral-rich areas of Ban Hong (班洪) and Ban Lao (班老), leading to the famous Ban Hong Incident. The Wa leaders from these regions rallied surrounding tribes, forming an alliance and organizing armed resistance against the British. Local populations from various ethnic groups, including Han, Dai, Lahu, and Yi, joined the Wa people to form the Southwest Border Defense Militia (西南边防民众义勇军), numbering over 1,400 people. Despite their efforts, the Kuomintang government, under pressure from British imperialism, forced the resistance to disband and suppressed the Wa people’s struggle.

In 1936, Wa leaders, including Ban Hong, issued a “Letter to the Countrymen”, declaring their commitment to resist British imperialism: “The Wa people of Awa Mountain, who have long been under China’s protection, will not become slaves of the British Empire, even if it costs us our lives.” Their defiance gained national attention and played a key role in thwarting British imperial ambitions.

World War II and the Wa’s Role in the Anti-Japanese Resistance

During World War II, the Wa people, along with other ethnic groups, supported the Chinese resistance against Japanese invaders by providing manpower, resources, and financial support to anti-Japanese forces in southwestern Yunnan. The Wa people organized guerrilla units such as the Gengma-Cangyuan Brigade (耿马沧源支队), Awa Mountain Guerrilla Brigade (阿佤山区游击支队), and Ban Hong Self-Defense Brigade (班洪自卫支队) to fight the invaders. In 1944, these guerrilla forces, in coordination with the regular Chinese troops, launched successful attacks against Japanese forces in areas such as Ban Hong (班洪) and Ban Lao (班老), regaining lost territory and driving the Japanese out of Menglian.

Population

According to the 2010 Sixth National Population Census, the total population of the Wa ethnic group in China was 429,709. As reported in the China Statistical Yearbook 2021, the population of the Wa ethnic group in China increased to 430,977.

Social Structure and Economy

In the central areas of Awa Mountain (阿佤山), the private ownership of production materials has been established, yet remnants of the primitive rural commune system still exist. Each village or community has its own territorial boundaries, encompassing one or several natural villages. Publicly owned land within each village community generally accounts for 10% to 20% of the arable land, while the majority of farmland, production tools, houses, livestock, weapons, and household goods are owned individually by families or individuals. Private land can be held, used, inherited, transferred, mortgaged, and sold for the long term, while public lands can be cultivated by all members of the village community.

The social relationships within Wa communities vary due to differences in their stages of economic development. In areas such as Ximeng (西盟), the Wa people engage in mutual farming, labor exchange, borrowing land for cultivation, hiring labor, debt relations, slavery, and tenancy. These economic relations include “mutual farming”, where two families work together to cultivate land, share seeds and labor, and divide the produce equally. “Labor exchange” is a temporary arrangement during busy farming seasons where villagers assist each other. “Borrowing land” involves land-poor families borrowing land from land-rich families. “Hiring labor” and “debt relations” are more common in these regions, with debt often evolving into an exploitative relationship. While slavery and tenancy still exist, they are not widespread.

Wealth inequality has led to a social stratification system. The wealthy individuals, known as “Zhumai” (珠米), are those who own land and hire laborers, whereas the “Kuplei” (库普莱) represent middle-class families who are self-sufficient or have sufficient resources to meet their basic needs. The poor families, known as “Pucha” (普查), are often dependent on borrowing and labor assistance, while the “Guanjueke” (官觉克) are the slaves. Despite some degree of social differentiation, this stratification has not yet reached a fixed or class-based society, and the Wa community is still in the process of class formation.

The economic levels in the peripheral areas of Awa Mountain are generally more advanced than in the central regions. Iron agricultural tools are widely used, and rice paddies account for over 20% of the total cultivated area. Dryland farming techniques have also improved, with plows replacing slash-and-burn methods. In these areas, political leaders, or big chiefs, have more privileges and tend to hold positions similar to feudal lords. The Ban Hong Tribe (班洪部落) in Cangyuan (沧源) is an example of such an area.

Before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the social and economic systems in the Ban Hong area, governed by a feudal-type lord, existed for over 100 years. The Ban Hong King held the highest ownership of the land in the tribe’s territory, and the Wa people, who depended on the land, were considered his subordinates. In the local perception, everything in the Ban Hong area, including the land, mountains, and even wild animals such as tigers, elephants, deer, and leopards, belonged to the Ban Hong King.

Village and Clan Structure

In Ximeng and surrounding regions, “headmen” and “moba” (巫巴) are key figures in the political and religious management of the village. Initially, the role of “Wolang” (窝郎) was held by clan leaders, but over time, it evolved into a village chief with extensive authority, governing religious, political, and other village matters. The position was hereditary, though by the time of the People’s Republic of China’s founding, the power of Wolang had been significantly reduced, focusing primarily on religious duties. “Moba”, or shamans, are often elderly and hold a certain degree of authority within the community, especially regarding religious and spiritual affairs.

Village Governance

Village affairs such as disputes, feuds, and decisions about hunting or warfare were traditionally resolved through “headman meetings” (头人会议). More significant matters required a “village assembly” (寨民大会). The Wa villages adhered to unwritten customary laws, treating all members equally while handling issues like breaches of confidentiality, theft, debts, and marriage. Minor offenses resulted in social condemnation, compensation, or apologies, while more serious offenses could lead to exile, property confiscation, or even death.

Pre-Revolutionary Social Structures

Before the People’s Republic of China was established, the social organization of the Wa people varied according to economic development. In Ximeng and neighboring regions, feudal systems were more prominent, especially in areas with significant rice paddies and concentrated land ownership. Landlords and wealthy farmers exploited the majority of the agricultural laborers, leading to a feudal landlord economy. In the Ban Hong region, land ownership and political authority were concentrated in the hands of the Ban Hong King, who oversaw a territory that extended beyond the village itself. His leadership was supported by a structured management system, where leadership succession was based on hereditary lines, with the first Ban Hong King being Daben.

The Ban Hong Kingdom

Ban Hong, a typical example of Wa feudal society, is a collective term that historically referred to the areas now known as Cangyuan Wa Autonomous County (沧源佤族自治县), including Ban Hong, Ban Lao, and Mangka villages. More than a century ago, Ban Hong was a collection of small clans. The Hu family from Shaoxing (绍兴, now part of Myanmar) later migrated to Ban Hong, where they became involved in a power struggle with the Nanban people. Over time, the Ban Hong forces defeated nearby villages and imposed control over their territories, with various agreements on labor, land cultivation, and military service.

Before the People’s Republic of China was established, the area controlled by the Ban Hong King was known as the “Gourd King’s Land” (葫芦王地), and the Ban Hong King held supreme authority over land and resources. This region had a well-established governance structure, with hereditary rulers and a team of officials who managed both political and economic matters.

Economy

For a long time, the Wa people have lived alongside the Han (汉), Dai (傣), and Lahu (拉祜) ethnic groups, which facilitated economic and cultural exchanges, promoting mutual development. After the mid-Ming Dynasty, large numbers of Han miners entered the Awa Mountain (阿佤山) region to mine silver and settle there. In the early Qing Dynasty, even more impoverished Han laborers arrived. A prominent silver factory, Maolong Silver Factory (茂隆银厂), was established in the Ban Hong and Ban Lao areas by Wu Shangxian (吴尚贤) from Shiping (石屏). At its peak, it employed up to 20,000 to 30,000 miners. This period also saw an influx of merchants from the interior, engaging in trade. However, in 1800, the Qing government closed the Maolong Silver Factory due to fears of “gathering laborers and causing unrest.” Soon after, Han miners opened more mining and manufacturing operations in the Ximeng (西盟) and Yongguang (永广) areas.

The large-scale mining and factory development had a profound impact on the Wa people. Han settlers introduced iron tools and rice farming techniques, marking the beginning of iron tool forging, silver making, rice paddy cultivation, and the use of oxen in the region.

Pre-Revolutionary Development and Social Structure

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Wa people lived in areas with varying levels of social development, influenced by their historical conditions and relationships with other ethnic groups. In the central regions of Awa Mountain, particularly in areas like Ximeng and Cangyuan (沧源), a small portion of the Wa people still existed in a transitional stage between primitive society and the early stages of a class-based society. However, the outer regions, such as Gengma, Shuangjiang, Cangyuan, Lancang (澜沧), and Menglian (孟连), were significantly influenced by the Dai people or under the control of Dai chieftains (土司), and were already well into a feudal lord system.

The Wa people living in the areas of Zhenkang (镇康) and Yongde (永德) had a more developed agricultural economy, with more rice paddies and similar production techniques to the Han and Dai communities. However, agriculture in the more remote parts of Awa Mountain, such as Gengma and Shuangjiang, remained less developed, with the main crops being dryland grains and red rice, with rice, buckwheat, corn, and beans cultivated to a lesser extent.

Agricultural Practices and Tools

The Wa people primarily practiced both dryland farming and rice paddy cultivation. Dryland farming, typically on mountain slopes, was very rudimentary, utilizing “slash-and-burn” and “digging and planting” methods. The “slash-and-burn” technique involved cutting down and drying the brush, setting it on fire to use the ash as fertilizer. No plows were used, and the seeds were planted by hand or with tools like spears and hoes. After two years of cultivation, the land would be left fallow. The “digging and planting” method was slightly more advanced, with land being plowed or hoed before the seeds were sown, but it still remained quite basic. Both methods were used in equal measure in most areas, with some places exclusively relying on “volcanic” lands where no plowing or digging took place.

Water irrigation for rice paddies was minimal, with most paddies relying on rainfall, which limited their productivity. In the central regions, rice paddies were rare, and the harvesting methods were still primitive. Rice was often cut and threshed by hand, with foot threshing being a common method. The harvested grains were stored in bamboo tubes. On average, the yield per hectare for rice paddies was about 2,250 kilograms, and for dryland fields, it was about 1,125 kilograms.

Labor Division

In terms of labor, there is a clear division by gender and age. During the spring plowing season, the men would clear the land by cutting down trees and grass, drying it, and setting fire to it. They would then use tools like spears, hoes, or bamboo-tipped instruments to create holes in the ground. Women and children would follow to plant the seeds and cover the soil. Harvesting and threshing rice was mainly the responsibility of the women. However, labor force participation was low in the Awa Mountain region, as religious activities, tribal conflicts, and ceremonial dates often took up half of the year.

In most areas of Awa Mountain, handicrafts were not yet an independent industry. Common crafts included blacksmithing, bamboo weaving, textile making, alcohol brewing, and betel nut production, but these were typically done for household consumption and mainly during the off-season.

Household Economy and Subsistence

Wa women were skilled in spinning thread and weaving cloth using bamboo and wooden tools, without the need for a loom. On average, they could weave about one meter of cloth a day, typically producing tube skirts and purses (known as “kupa” or 挎包) for personal use. Livestock raising, gathering, and hunting were other side activities, although hunting mainly served as a means to supplement food supplies.

Trade and Barter System

In the Awa Mountain region, the trade system was initially based on a barter economy. The first “opium markets” (烟会) appeared in Ximeng due to the demand for opium. Merchants exchanged goods like salt, tea, opium, chili peppers, cloth, and cattle in return for opium. These markets relied primarily on barter trade, with opium production being a significant economic activity in the region. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, opium cultivation was eradicated.

Through time, the Wa people have experienced significant changes in their agricultural practices, social structures, and economic activities. While some areas remain underdeveloped, others have gradually integrated into larger economic systems, blending traditional practices with new methods introduced by neighboring ethnic groups like the Han and Dai.

Culture

Beliefs

The Wa people follow three primary religions: primitive religion, Buddhism, and Christianity.

Primitive Religion

Primitive religious beliefs are the most characteristic and widespread among the Wa people. Buddhism and Christianity were introduced to the region much later, and only a portion of the population in certain areas practices these religions.

The Wa people believe in the immortality of the soul and that all things have a spirit. In their worldview, humans, mountains, rivers, plants, animals, and all natural phenomena like wind, rain, thunder, and lightning possess souls or are governed by spirits, often referred to as “gods” or “ghosts” without distinguishing between the two. Life, aging, sickness, and death are all connected to the soul. This belief system leads to a deep reverence for the natural world, believing that everything, even phenomena beyond their understanding, is controlled by an incomprehensible force.

The most revered deity among the Wa is “Mu Yiji” (木依吉), seen as the supreme god, the creator and ruler of all things. Religious ceremonies such as the Lamu drum festival (拉木鼓), cow tail sacrifice, and hunter’s head ritual are conducted in honor of Mu Yiji. Every Wa village is near a sacred forest called “Longmei Ji” (龙梅吉), meaning “Ghost Forest,” where people believe the god resides. The Wa people avoid entering these sacred forests, and they cannot disturb the plants, trees, rocks, or soil within, as doing so is thought to bring divine punishment. Several sacred forests, like the one in Wengding Village (翁丁村) in Cangyuan Mengjiao (沧源勐角), Nuoliang Village (糯良乡), Shanjiada Zhai (单甲大寨), and Ban Hong Village (班洪村), remain well-preserved today as either scenic forests or forbidden places.

Another important deity in Wa belief is “Ai Ye” (阿依俄), worshipped as the male ancestor, and is typically placed on the left wall next to the household altar (鬼神火塘) in the home. Every male-headed family worships this deity, especially during major life events like marriage, childbirth, death, construction, or adoption, when prayers and offerings are made to seek blessings.

To receive the protection of these deities, Wa people engage in frequent religious activities. These include annual ceremonies to pray for favorable weather, beginning with worshipping the water spirits for good harvests, followed by larger rituals like the Lamu drum festival, cow tail sacrifice, and the hunter’s head festival. The headhunting tradition, a remnant of primitive society, has been abolished as the region’s society progressed and production methods improved.

Buddhism

The Wa people follow both Han Buddhism and Southern Buddhism. Han Buddhism was introduced from Dali (大理) into villages like Cangyuan (沧源), Yanshuai, and Shanjiada about a century ago, but before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, it had very few adherents. On the other hand, Southern Buddhism was introduced to the Wa regions around a century ago, first entering Ban Lao (班老) in Cangyuan, later spreading to Ban Hong and Mengjiao. Before 1949, about 20,000 Wa people practiced Southern Buddhism in these areas.

Christianity

Christianity was introduced to the Wa people in the early 20th century. In 1905, American Baptist missionary Everett Wilkie (永伟里) arrived in the Lancang (澜沧) and Shuangjiang (双江) regions to spread Christianity. Wilkie and his descendants purchased land, built churches, and established missionary activities that gradually spread Christianity among the Lahu and Wa peoples. By the time of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, over 20,000 Wa people had embraced Christianity, mostly in the Cangyuan and Lancang areas.

Architecture

Wa villages are typically built on hillsides or mountain tops, with the houses following the natural contours of the land. The villages vary in size, with larger ones housing hundreds of families, while smaller ones may have just a few dozen. The structure of the houses generally follows two primary styles: bamboo-wood structures and earth-wood structures.

The most common architectural style among the Wa people, especially in regions like Cangyuan, Ximeng, Menglian, Lancang, and Shuangjiang, is the “raised platform” (干栏式) house, made predominantly from bamboo and wood. These houses are typically two stories: the upper level is where people live, while the lower level is open and used for storing livestock or farming tools.

The Wa people traditionally build homes with communal help, often completing construction in a single day. The wealthier and more influential villagers, such as the village chiefs or wealthy families, might build “big houses” marked by special wooden carvings and adorned with symbols of wealth, such as the skull of a horned cow. These homes typically follow the same internal arrangement as ordinary homes, with three fire pits: one for cooking, one for guests, and one for religious offerings.

In regions like Zhenkang (镇康) and Yongde (永德), Wa homes are often made from mud bricks, bricks, and tiles, with similar structural features—two floors, the upper for living and the lower for storing tools or agricultural goods.

Food and Cuisine

The Wa people mainly rely on rice as their staple food, along with small red rice, corn, and various types of beans. Meat primarily comes from domesticated animals such as cattle, chickens, and pigs. During the off-farming season, they also hunt wild boar, deer, wild chickens, and birds for food. The variety of vegetables includes bamboo shoots, leafy greens, cucumbers, winter melons, chili peppers, and wild herbs.

Wa cuisine is quite simple, with a preference for soft rice, and meals are typically eaten two or three times a day. Traditionally, they used to eat with their hands, but now they generally use chopsticks and spoons.

The Wa people are fond of alcohol. They prepare “water wine” by boiling small red rice, mixing it with yeast, and fermenting it for about half a month before placing it in a bamboo tube and adding cold water. Alcohol plays an essential role in their culture, and they often say, “No alcohol, no ceremony; without it, words are not taken seriously.”

In addition to alcohol, the Wa people enjoy drinking bitter tea, smoking grass cigarettes, and chewing betel nuts.

Clothing

Traditional Wa clothing varies between regions.

In Ximeng, the men’s traditional clothing consists of a short jacket without a collar, loose trousers, and a headband made from black or red fabric. Young men often wear bamboo or rattan neckpieces. Women wear black, collarless short dresses with straight, pleated skirts. They adorn themselves with silver or bamboo hairpins and multiple strands of beads around their necks. Additionally, they wear several rattan rings around their waists and necks, and silver bracelets and large earrings.

In Cangyuan, the men’s clothing features a round-neck, button-up jacket with loose trousers, similar to Ximeng. Women prefer long hair and wear silver or aluminum earrings and necklaces, along with a round-neck, narrow-sleeve, right-over-left buttoned short jacket. Their chest is decorated with silver beads, and they wear straight, patterned skirts.

In Yongde and Zhenkang, Wa clothing is almost identical to the Han clothing of the local Han people.

Transportation

Roads are important infrastructures for communication within villages and for external interactions.

Due to the economic development and natural geography constraints, the roads within Wa villages are often incomplete, irregular, and follow the natural layout of the village. Most of the roads are dirt paths or stony roads, which are difficult to traverse. There are typically three to four main roads leading out of the village, depending on which ones are more convenient for entry and exit. These roads are often narrow and winding, akin to “sheep tracks”.

Family Structure

The Wa people follow a monogamous family system, where the family unit is the basic unit of production and consumption in society. Property is typically inherited by the youngest son, with daughters having no inheritance rights. Polygyny is socially allowed.

The Wa naming system follows a patrilineal naming convention, where names are linked across generations, such as in the example “San Bili—Bili Song”, indicating that San is the son of Bili, and Bili is the son of Song. This system demonstrates the lineage across three generations, including son, father, and grandfather.

Etiquette

Respect for elders is a fundamental moral code among all ethnic groups, and the Wa are no exception. The Wa proverb “Gela Na Gela Yang” means “Filial piety is a virtue,” reflecting the importance of honoring and respecting elders. The Wa people take pride in showing deference to older generations, listening attentively to their words and respecting their behavior. If an elder becomes unable to work, their children bear the responsibility for their support, either financially or through labor. There are also rituals to honor the elderly after they pass away.

Due to the difficulties in reproduction and limited healthcare, life in Awa Mountain is fragile and highly valued, which is why the Wa people place a significant emphasis on caring for children. The Wa proverb “Gela Mo Gela Hong” means “Love is a virtue,” reflecting the emphasis placed on nurturing and loving children.

When a child reaches one month and five years old, special ceremonies are held, and children are taught the principles of “Awa Li” (阿佤理), which is a set of guidelines to help them understand that a good life is built through hard work. It is considered taboo in Wa culture to hit or scold children, as it is believed not only to harm the body but also to scare away the child’s soul.

Calendar

The Wa people created a simple calendar system. The year consists of twelve months, with each month’s start marked by a specific natural phenomenon. The calendar helps to organize agricultural, religious, and other social activities based on the seasonal climate and other conditions.

Literature

Wa literature is primarily oral folk literature, encompassing myths, legends, stories, fairy tales, fables, proverbs, and more. Through various literary forms, the Wa people express their aesthetic concepts, moral values, religious beliefs, and customs.

One of the most widely circulated Wa myths is the “Sigangli” (司岗里) myth, a well-known piece of oral literature among the Wa people. The myth covers topics such as the formation of the world, the creation of plants and animals, the origin of humans and the ethnic group, and the development of language. The “Sigangli” myth combines the Wa people’s experiences in production and life, their history, literature, arts, ethnic relations, and customs, making it an “encyclopedia” of Wa culture.

Other notable legends and stories in Wa folklore include the “Legend of Cangyuan Cliff Paintings” (沧源崖画), “The Legend of the Head-Hunting Ritual” (猎头祭谷), “The Legend of the New Rice Festival” (新米节), and “The Origin of Water Wine” (水酒的来历).

Among Wa stories, those about orphans and animals are particularly rich in regional and ethnic cultural characteristics. Orphan stories, with their wide social basis, reflect the specific historical stage of the Wa society. Representative stories include “The Orphan of Yan’er” (孤儿岩惹) and “The Orphan and the Fairy” (孤儿和仙女). Animal stories are full of life and strong regional cultural features, such as “The Proud Tiger” (骄傲的老虎), “The Birds Building a House” (百鸟盖房), “The Yellow Bull, Water Buffalo, and Leopard” (黄牛、水牛和豹子), and “Why Cows Eat Grass and Plow Fields” (牛为什么吃草犁地).

The Wa people also have a rich tradition of fairy tales and fables. Some representative fairy tales include “Yan’ga and the Dragon Maiden” (岩嘎和龙女), “Brother Cow” (牛哥哥), “The Competitive Tiger” (一只好胜的老虎), and “Counting Stars” (数星星). Representative fables include “The Shy Bamboo” (害羞的竹子), “The Handsome Deer” (爱漂亮的马鹿), “The Stone Cliff, Wind, and White Flowers” (石岩、风和白花), and “The Pond Water and Mountain Springs” (潭水和山泉).

The proverbs of the Wa people reflect the accumulation of life experiences and summarize their attitudes toward life and moral qualities. They also reveal the Wa people’s philosophy of life, which has a powerful vitality and emotional appeal. Some examples include: “If the land is not cultivated, grass will grow; if a person is not diligent, they will starve” (地不种长草，人不勤饿肚), “A single bamboo cannot form a grove; one person alone cannot succeed” (一棵竹子不成蓬，一人做事难成功), “A tree should stand straight; a person should have a good heart” (是树就要直立挺拔，是人就要心地善良), and “The wider the dry land, the more barren it is; the whiter the girl, the lazier she is” (旱地宽，荒的多；姑娘白，懒的多).

Art

Painting and Carving

Wa painting and carving art are deeply connected to their myths and religious beliefs. Paintings are typically done on the wooden boards of “big houses” (大房子), depicting human and animal figures in a simple, primitive style. Carvings, apart from those on the roof ridges of “big houses” (大房子), also appear on cowhorns and wooden drums used for rituals such as head-hunting ceremonies, often showing human figures, cow heads, and other symbols.

In addition, the Cangyuan Cliff Paintings (沧源崖画), believed to be the work of the Wa people, are spread across fifteen cliff sites. The paintings contain over a thousand recognizable images, using pigments made from hematite powder, animal blood, and plant-based glue. The designs are simple, yet the figures of humans and animals are diverse, reflecting themes such as hunting, herding, villages, warfare, and dance.

Music

Wa music is known for its primitive, simple, beautiful, and healthy qualities, distinguished by its rustic tunes and rugged style. The music consists mainly of folk songs, including work songs, love songs, religious songs, mourning songs, celebration songs, and children’s songs. The Wa people use a variety of instruments, including mouth harps (口篾), flutes (短笛), gourd flutes (葫芦笙), single-stringed instruments (独弦琴), wooden drums (木鼓), elephant-foot drums (象脚鼓), copper bells (铜铓), and hairpins (钗).

Dance

Wa dance covers a wide range of themes, with an ancient, rugged, passionate, and lively style. Major dances include the Circle Dance (圆圈舞), Wooden Drum Dance (木鼓舞), House-Building Dance (盖房舞), Pestle Dance (舂碓舞), Hair-Flinging Dance (甩发舞), Elephant-Foot Drum Dance (象脚鼓舞), and Bamboo Stick Dance (竹竿舞).

Among these, the Wooden Drum Dance (木鼓舞) and Hair-Flinging Dance (甩发舞) are particularly well-known for their deep cultural heritage and rich ethnic features, earning acclaim both domestically and internationally.

Customs

Festivals

The Wa (佤族) people have several traditional festivals, including the New Fire Festival (新火节), Sowing Festival (播种节), and New Rice Festival (新米节).

New Fire Festival

The New Fire Festival (新火节) is the Wa (佤族) people’s New Year celebration, filled with a sense of “saying goodbye to the old and welcoming the new.” Every year, in the twelfth month of the lunar calendar or the first month of the following year, each household in the village extinguishes their fire under the guidance of the elders and performs the “send off the old fire” ritual. Then, they go to a sacred mountain to “drill for fire” to obtain new fire, which is brought back to the elder’s home to create a large flame. Each family then takes some of this new fire to use. For the Wa (佤族) people, the New Fire Festival (新火节) symbolizes the end of disasters, hunger, and disease, and the beginning of prosperity, health, and happiness.

Sowing Festival

The Sowing Festival (播种节) is celebrated around the fifteenth day of the third lunar month. Before sowing, the village head calls the elders to sacrifice a chicken and read the omens, selecting an auspicious day. After the sacrifice and prayer to the spirit of rice, villagers begin to plant their fields. At night, they gather around the fire to eat, drink rice wine, and then go to the village square to sing songs, praying for good weather and abundant harvests.

New Rice Festival

The New Rice Festival (新米节) is held in mid-August according to the lunar calendar when the grains start to ripen. Before the festival, the village head consults with respected elders to determine an auspicious date. Young men in the village repair roads and build bridges, while the women clean the houses and wash clothes. On the day of the festival, each household goes to the fields to pick a few ears of rice, which are then brought to the house of the village head. The ceremony includes slaughtering chickens, butchering pigs, filtering rice wine, and cooking sticky rice. After the rice is cooked, the village head offers a blessing, reads the chicken bones, and everyone eats and drinks rice wine to celebrate the harvest. As night falls, people of all ages gather in the village square to sing and dance, creating a lively celebration.

In addition, the Wa (佤族) people in Gengma (耿马) have the Qingmiao Festival (青苗节), and the Wa (佤族) people in Cangyuan (沧源), specifically in Banlong (班洪) and Banlao (班老), celebrate the Gong Elephant Festival (贡象节). With cultural exchanges, the Wa (佤族) people also celebrate traditional Han (汉族) festivals, such as Dragon Boat Festival (端午节), Mid-Autumn Festival (中秋节), and Spring Festival (春节).

In 2003, Ximeng Wa Autonomous County (西盟佤族自治县) introduced the Wooden Drum Festival (木鼓节), and in 2004, Cangyuan Wa Autonomous County (沧源佤族自治县) created the Sigangli Carnival (司岗里狂欢节).

Marriage and Love

In the past, Wa (佤族) men and women were free to interact before marriage, a practice known as “串姑娘” (串姑娘). Young people would gather in groups, singing love songs, and those attracted to each other would exchange gifts to formalize their relationship. If both parties agreed, they could marry, but the decision had to be approved by the parents. During the wedding negotiations, the groom would pay a bride price, known as “Nai Mu Money” (奶母钱) and “Buy the Girl Money” (买姑娘钱), with the latter often being paid at a later time.

The Wa (佤族) people strictly prohibit marriage between individuals with the same surname. This refers to people who share the same ancestry, typically within a family or clan. Historically, the Wa (佤族) people practiced “cross-cousin marriages” (姑舅表婚), and marriages outside of their ethnic group were rare.

Funerals

The funeral customs of the Wa (佤族) people are mainly characterized by burials, with some instances of cremation or wild burials.

The Wa (佤族) classify death into two categories: “Yong Meng Mu” (永孟姆), meaning a peaceful death, and “Yong Zao Ao” (永早敖), meaning an untimely or violent death. A natural death, such as from old age or illness, and a death at home is considered “Yong Meng Mu”, while a death from an accident, such as by knife, gun, water, fire, suicide, difficult childbirth, or death outside the village, is categorized as “Yong Zao Ao”. If a husband dies while his wife is pregnant, it is also considered “Yong Zao Ao”.

There are distinct differences in the funeral practices for these two types of death. Those who have died from “Yong Zao Ao” cannot be buried in the same cemetery as those who have died from “Yong Meng Mu”, nor can they receive the same scale of funeral rites. Every Wa (佤族) village has two cemeteries: one for those who have died peacefully, “Yong Meng Mu”, and one for those who have died untimely, “Yong Zao Ao”. These cemeteries are located about a kilometer to the west of the village, with the peaceful cemetery at a higher elevation and the untimely death cemetery at a lower elevation, separated by a certain distance.

In the Wa (佤族) culture, choosing a burial site is sometimes done by using eggs for divination. The egg is thrown into the air, and if it breaks upon landing, it is believed that the deceased person wishes to be buried in that spot. If the egg does not break, another location is chosen, and the process is repeated until the egg breaks. The cemetery is considered communal, and there is no “ownership” over burial plots. If other deceased individuals need to be buried in the same location, they are free to do so.

The simplicity of Wa (佤族) village cemeteries may be considered typical among global cultures. Additionally, the Wa (佤族) traditional burial customs do not involve erecting gravestones, building mounds, or holding any tomb-sweeping rituals.