Yi Ethnic Minority

The Yi people (彝族) are the sixth largest ethnic group in China, with a population of approximately 9.83 million (as of 2021). The Yi language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family and has six major dialects, including five sub-dialects and 25 local variations.

The Yi are primarily distributed across the highlands and coastal hills of the four provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Guangxi. Significant populations also reside in the regions of Chuxiong, Honghe, Liangshan, Bijie, Liupanshui, and Anshun, with Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture (凉山彝族自治州) being the largest Yi settlement area in China.

Population and Geographic Distribution

• Population: 9.83 million (2021)

• Regions: Primarily Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and parts of Vietnam

• Language: Yi language (Tibeto-Burman branch)

• Writing System: Yi script (韪书)

• Major Cities: Kunming (昆明), Yuxi (玉溪), Xichang (西昌), Chuxiong (楚雄), Qujing (曲靖)

• Calendar: Yi solar calendar (十月太阳历)

Ethnonyms and Historical Background

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Yi people used a variety of self-designations and external names based on dialects and regions. Some of the notable external names include “Yi,” “Black Yi,” “White Yi,” “Red Yi,” “Sweet Yi,” “Flower Waist,” and “Micha.” Among the self-designations, the Yi people from areas such as Zhaotong (昭通), Wuding (武定), Luquan (禄劝), Mile (弥勒), and Shiping (石屏) in Yunnan, as well as the Yi from the Greater and Lesser Liangshan areas in Sichuan, identify as “Nuosu” (诺苏), “Nasuo” (纳苏), or “Nesu” (聂苏), accounting for about half of the total Yi population.

Following the establishment of the People’s Republic of China and a process of ethnic identification, the Yi people collectively agreed on “Yi” as their unified ethnic name, derived from the term for “Yi” (鼎彝) in ancient Yi script.

History of the Yi People

The origins of the Yi people are debated, with multiple theories proposing northern, southern, eastern, and indigenous Yunnan origins. However, the prevailing academic consensus is that the Yi people primarily originate from the ancient Qiang people of the western regions.

Early Development

Historical records from both Han Chinese and Yi texts suggest that the ancestors of the Yi people were closely related to the ancient Qiang people, whose activity centers were located around the areas of Dianchi (滇池) and Qiongdu (邛都) — near present-day Xichang (西昌), Sichuan. In these areas, agricultural and pastoral tribes such as the Qiongdu, Kunming (昆明), Lao Jin (劳浸), and Mo Mo (靡莫) thrived. Yi legends recount their ancestors living in the “Qiongzhi Lu” (邛之卤) in ancient times, before migrating to the banks of two rivers: the Nuoyi (诺以) and Quyi (曲以), corresponding to the Jinsha River and Anning River basins.

Expansion and Integration

Around the 3rd century AD, the ancestors of the Yi people gradually expanded from the Anning River, Jinsha River, Dianchi Lake, and Ailao Mountain (哀牢山) regions to northeastern Yunnan, southern Yunnan, northwestern Guizhou, and northwestern Guangxi. Throughout their history, the Yi people have assimilated with various other ethnic groups, including descendants of the Puyi people (濮人) of southern China.

Ancient Yi texts, such as the “Southwest Yi Records” (西南彝志) from Guizhou, document many instances of the transformation of Puyi into Yi. Yi settlements were also home to many other Tibeto-Burman tribes, further complicating the historical names used to identify the Yi people.

Social Development

Over 2,000 years ago, Yi society transitioned into a patriarchal clan system. Yi records indicate that their ancestors, led by “Zhong Mou You” (仲牟由), had six sons, each of whom became the progenitor of one of the six main Yi clans: Wu, Zha, Bu, Mo, Nuo, and Heng. This marks the transition of the Yi people from clan and tribal structures into a more complex tribal confederation.

By the 2nd to 3rd century BC, Yi people around Dianchi Lake had begun transitioning into a class-based society. In the early Han Dynasty, the area around Dianchi, once known as the Dian Kingdom, was governed by the “Dian King.” By the 8th century, six local powers appeared in the north of Ailao Mountain and around Erhai Lake, known as the “Six Zhaos” (六诏). The leader of “Mengshe Zhao” (蒙舍诏), Pi Luoge (皮罗阁), unified the six Zhaos in 783 AD, establishing the “Nanzhao” (南诏) Kingdom, which included the Yi people, Bai, Naxi, and other groups. Nanzhao became a slave society, and Pi Luoge was granted the title of “King of Yunnan” by the Tang Dynasty.

The Yi Under Feudalism and Later History

The fall of Nanzhao in 937 AD and the rise of the Dali Kingdom marked the beginning of feudalism in Yi-inhabited regions. The Dali Kingdom was later conquered by the Yuan Dynasty in the 13th century, and these regions were integrated into the centralized empire. During the Ming Dynasty, the Yi people experienced significant changes with the introduction of three types of officials: Liu Guan, Tu Liu, and Tu Guan. These reforms greatly influenced the development of the Yi regions’ economy.

In the Qing Dynasty, the “Gaoliu Gui Liu” policy (改土归流) strengthened direct government control over the Yi regions, causing the disintegration of the landlord economy and the further development of feudal landlord systems.

Modern Struggles

After the Opium Wars (1840), China began to fall into a semi-feudal, semi-colonial state, with widespread suffering among the Yi people. Opium became rampant in Yi areas, and slave owners in Liangshan used opium profits to arm themselves, further expanding their influence. The Yi people fought against both internal strife and external threats, with many fleeing to areas like Lijiang.

The Yi people have a long history of resistance against exploitation and oppression. During the late Qing Dynasty, the Yi people, particularly the Li Wenxue (李文学) led rebellion in Ailao Mountain, with significant influence. In the late 19th century, Yi and Hani peoples in regions like Jinning and Yuanyang united to resist French invaders in China’s frontier areas.

The Yi people continued their resistance during the Revolution of 1911 and participated in the national struggle against imperialism. In 1914, the “Laku Uprising” (拉库起义), named after the Tiger Year of the Yi calendar, was a major rebellion against slavery.

Political Structure and History

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Yi people lived in scattered communities, leading to significant socio-economic imbalances. Different Yi regions had diverse social organizations and political systems.

Feudal Systems: Tusi and Landlord Economies

In the northern parts of Wuding (武定) and Luquan (禄劝) counties in Yunnan Province, as well as some areas along the southern banks of the Honghe River (红河), remnants of feudal lordship persisted into the first half of the 20th century, with Tusi (土司) rule — a form of local governance based on the feudal landlord economy.

Before the mid-Qing Dynasty, Tusi powers were strong, with land, forests, and resources under their control. The general populace was subject to these Tusi lords. However, over the last century, the Tusi system gradually weakened, and by the eve of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the feudal lord economy had mostly collapsed. Despite efforts by Tusi rulers to prevent land transfers, many state-owned lands (known as “official lands”) were passed to commoners, while “private lands” also increased and became unmanageable. By the time of liberation, private lands in Wuding and Luquan had accounted for around half of the total land in Tusi-controlled regions.

In the areas of northwestern Guizhou and northeastern Yunnan, several small lordship powers existed until the founding of the People’s Republic of China. These “Tumu” (土目) powers, remnants of the “Gaoliu Gui Liu” (改土归流) system, were significant in areas like Weining (威宁), Bijie (毕节), and Hezhan (赫章). Although the feudal landlord economy persisted in many Yi regions, the degree and form of such remnants varied.

Socio-Economic Conditions

In many Yi regions, a feudal landlord economy dominated, with landlords possessing significantly more land than the poor peasants. Landlords, rich farmers, and aristocrats owned the majority of livestock, agricultural tools, and resources. In contrast, poor peasants often had little to no livestock or farm tools. The landlord class represented approximately 5% of the total farming households in these regions, while 60-80% of households were landless or tenant farmers.

In some Yi areas, such as in parts of Sichuan’s Liangshan Prefecture (凉山), feudal lordship emerged directly from the collapse of slavery. For example, in areas like Anning River (安宁河) and along the Sichuan-Yunnan highway, feudal economies grew out of the dissolution of a slave-based system. In other regions, like Pingshan (屏山) and Xuyong (叙永), feudal systems developed after the “Gaoliu Gui Liu” reforms (which integrated local governance into a centralized system).

The Rise of Capitalism in Yi Regions

In the late 19th century, the rise of capitalism began in Yi-inhabited areas, particularly along the Yunnan-Vietnam Railway. Several capitalist enterprises emerged, some owned by Yi people. For example, in the Gejiu (个旧) tin mining district, over 20 Yi capitalists ran businesses with up to several hundred employees.

In the early 20th century, a warlord and bureaucratic class emerged in the Yi ruling elite, particularly in northeastern Yunnan, where they took control of commercial enterprises and capitalist ventures. They controlled financial institutions like the Fudian Bank (富滇银行) and mining companies, such as the Gejiu Tin Company and Yunnan Mining Company.

Slavery and Social Stratification

In some Yi regions, such as Liangshan, a strict hierarchical slave-based society persisted. The social structure was divided into five primary classes, based on both land ownership and bloodline relationships:

• Zimo (兹莫): The highest level of leadership, often referred to as “Tusi” (土司), was the ruler of the entire Liangshan region, though their influence weakened over time.

• Nohe (诺合): The most dominant class in Liangshan society, representing approximately 7% of the Yi population. They enjoyed political and economic privileges, owned land and slaves, and controlled other subordinate classes. They were sometimes called “Black Yi” (黑彝).

• Quno (曲诺): Representing the highest class among the ruled, known as “White Yi” (白彝), who occupied about 50% of the population. They were subject to the authority of the Nohe class but owned some land and resources.

• Aga (阿加): This class made up around 33% of the population, and they were mostly slaves to the higher classes. They worked in exchange for food and basic supplies, with limited rights or mobility.

• Xiasi (呷西): The lowest class, approximately 10% of the population, had no land or personal freedom and could be bought and sold at the will of their masters.

The social structure was rigid, and the lower classes, often referred to as “Jiehuo” (节伙), had little freedom and were subjected to heavy labor demands, exploitation, and even death at the hands of their masters.

Indigenous Governance: Family-Based Systems

In Liangshan, Yi society was divided into family-based clans or “Jiashi” (家支), with each clan tracing its ancestry through patrilineal lines. These clans were bound together by a shared bloodline and family name. While there was no central government, each clan had respected leaders, known as “Su Yi” and “De Gu,” who were responsible for settling disputes and ensuring the clan’s well-being. Clan gatherings called “Jier Ji Tie” (集尔集铁) were held to discuss internal matters, while larger gatherings, “Menge” (蒙格), addressed inter-clan conflicts or significant events.

Despite the absence of formal laws, Yi society relied on customary laws, known as “Jiewei” (节威), to regulate behavior and maintain the hierarchical structure. These laws primarily protected the rights of the ruling classes, enforcing strict rules against intermarriage or sexual relations between different social classes.

Ethnic Autonomy and Reforms

In January 1951, China’s first Yi Autonomous Region, Hongmao Gu Yi Autonomous Region (红毛姑彝族自治区), was established in Xichang County. Over the next few years, additional Yi autonomous regions were created, including those in Zhaojue (昭觉), Eshan (峨山), and the larger Yi Autonomous Prefectures of Liangshan, Honghe (红河), and Chuxiong (楚雄).

In the 1950s, significant reforms were implemented, including democratic changes in Yi regions. By 1958, these regions had successfully completed their democratic reform movements, which dismantled the slave system, eliminated the privileges of slave owners, and redistributed land and resources to the oppressed Yi people.

Modern Reforms and Continuing Struggles

From the 1950s to the 1980s, further autonomous counties for Yi people were established across Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Sichuan, where Yi communities lived in larger concentrations. This continued process of political and economic restructuring significantly altered the traditional feudal and slave-based systems, empowering local Yi populations and ensuring their inclusion in the broader national framework.

Though historical oppression and exploitation have receded, the Yi people’s struggle for social equality and economic justice remains an important chapter in China’s modern history. Their continued cultural resilience is a testament to their enduring spirit.

Culture

Beliefs and Religious Practices

The Yi people’s religious beliefs are largely rooted in primitive religions, characterized by nature worship, totem worship, ancestor worship, and a belief in the animism of all things. In Yi society, the roles of religious figures like “Bimo” (毕摩), the priest, and “Suni” (苏尼), the shaman, hold significant influence, particularly in the areas of Greater and Lesser Liangshan (大凉山 and 小凉山) along the border of Sichuan and Yunnan.

In Yi regions of Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guangxi, aside from maintaining their indigenous primitive religious beliefs, some areas also practice Daoism and Buddhism. In recent times, Christianity and Catholicism have also found followers in certain Yi communities.

Nature Worship and Animism

The Yi people’s reverence for nature stems from the belief that all things possess a soul. Historically, Yi communities had low productivity and limited control over nature, which led them to see everything—whether human, animal, or plant—as imbued with life and will. This belief in the animism of nature developed alongside their reverence for the soul. According to Yi tradition, when a person is born, their soul attaches to the body, and upon death, the soul leaves the body but continues to exist. The belief in the soul extends to all things in the world, which the Yi view as influenced by the spirits that govern their activities and natural phenomena, further fueling their devotion to the natural world.

This belief system manifests in several forms of worship, including reverence for the sky, earth, water, stones, fire, and mountains.

Totem Worship

In ancient Yi society, totem worship was prevalent, with a belief in the blood relationship between humans and animals or plants. Ancient Yi epics, such as Le’e Tieyi (勒俄特衣) and Xuezu (Zishi Pian) (雪族（子史篇）), document the existence of totemic beliefs, which continue to influence Yi culture. Some prominent totems include bamboo, gourds, pine trees, millet, and various animals. For example, in the area around Songziyuan (松子园) in Chengjiang County (澄江县), Yi people revere the “Golden Bamboo” as a divine ancestor. In the Ailao Mountain (哀牢山) region, Yi people continue the custom of worshiping the “Ancestor Gourd.”

Many Yi villages in Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan also have their own “sacred trees” or “sacred forests,” which are revered by local communities. The Yi people of the “Luoluo” (罗罗) group, from the Ailao Mountains, consider the tiger as their ancestral spirit, with “Luoluo” meaning “tiger tiger” in their language. Each household in this group worships an ancestor’s portrait, known as “Nieluomo” (涅罗摩), which translates to “Mother Tiger Ancestor.”

Ancestor Worship

The Yi believe that the spirits of ancestors continue to exist after death and can either bring fortune or misfortune to their descendants. As a result, ancestor worship plays an important role in their culture, with prayers for blessings and protection. According to Yi beliefs, a person has three souls: one guards the cremation ground and grave, one reunites with ancestral spirits, and one remains in the home to oversee the ancestor’s spirit tablet. The well-being of these souls directly affects the prosperity and health of future generations, so rituals to ensure their peace are crucial.

Two important ancestral rites among the Yi are the Anling (安灵) ceremony and the Songling (送灵) ceremony. The Anling ceremony is held a few days or months after a funeral, presided over by a Bimo. It involves selecting a spirit bamboo, invoking the spirit, making a spirit tablet, offering medicines to cure illness, and making offerings. Afterward, the spirit tablet is kept in the home. The Songling ceremony is a more elaborate ritual, where the spirit tablets of ancestors are taken to the wilderness to be placed in the ancestral spirit cave of the same clan.

Bimo and Suni: Priests and Shamans

The Bimo is the traditional priest of Yi religious practices. The term Bimo comes from the Yi language, where Bi means “to bless or recite sacred texts,” and Mo means “elder” or “teacher.” The Bimo has ancient roots, with the first recorded Bimo family being the “Shizi Shide” (施子史德) family, followed by other families such as “Lianglin” (两林) and “She She” (射舌). Famous Bimos like Aduerpu (阿都尔普) and Biasi Laize (毕阿诗拉则) are renowned for their deep spiritual power.

Historically, Bimos were chosen from the highest levels of Yi society, initially by the Zimo (兹莫) ruling class, then by the Nohe (诺合) class, and finally by the Quuno (曲诺) class. By the time of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Bimos from the Zimo class had become rare, with the majority of Bimos emerging from the Quuno class. Prominent Quuno Bimo families include “Jike” (吉克), “Shama” (沙马), “Qubi” (曲比), and “Ayu” (阿育), all of which have long-standing hereditary Bimo traditions.

Bimo’s religious activities include:

• Madu Di (玛都迪): Making spirit tablets

• Cuobi (撮毕): Sending the spirit tablets

• Zimo Bi (孜摩毕): Reciting peace prayers

• Zhuoni Shuo (卓尼硕): Reciting purification prayers

• Xiao Bu (消布): Reciting curse-breaking prayers

• Cuonagu (撮那固): Reciting healing prayers

• Lici Ri (里次日): Reciting exorcism prayers

• Cuori (撮日): Reciting enemy-cursing prayers

Bimos also lead ceremonies for making alliances and conducting divine judgments in disputes.

Suni: Shamans of Yi Society

Suni, the Yi shaman, plays a different role from the Bimo. The term Suni means “human” in Yi, but it specifically refers to one who performs rituals and ceremonies. Suni are usually chosen from the Quuno (曲诺) or Aga (阿加) classes, and unlike Bimos, they are not hereditary. Both men and women can become Suni. The primary tools of a Suni are a sheep skin drum and a wooden mallet.

While Bimos focus on major religious ceremonies and ancestral worship, Suni are primarily involved in healing rituals, exorcism, and casting spells. Suni do not read sacred texts, nor do they lead large religious ceremonies. Their role in Yi society is important but less prestigious than that of the Bimo, and their income from religious activities is also lower.

Clothing

The Yi people are divided into numerous sub-groups, and their clothing varies significantly due to the diverse geographical environments, uneven social and economic development, and local cultural traditions. The clothing styles can be broadly categorized into six types based on the main Yi settlements: Liangshan (凉山), Wumeng Mountain (乌蒙山), Honghe (红河), Southeastern Yunnan (滇东南), Western Yunnan (滇西), and Chuxiong (楚雄).

Liangshan

In Liangshan (凉山), the traditional Yi clothing for both men and women includes right-overlap robes with large collars. They wear “Chak Erwa” (擦尔瓦), woolen cloaks, and leg bindings. Footwear is typically barefoot, with hemp shoes worn in winter. Men tie their hair in a topknot, and the style varies based on dialectal areas. Some men wear honey-colored beads or silver earrings as accessories. Men’s trousers in the northern dialect area are differentiated into “large pants,” “medium pants,” and “small pants.”

Women wear pleated skirts and headscarves. After childbirth, women may wear hats or wrap their heads in scarves. They often wear ear jewelry, hand ornaments, and silver necklaces. Traditional fabrics are primarily self-woven and self-dyed wool and hemp, with the main colors being black, red, and yellow. The patterns on their clothing often feature motifs like rooster combs, sheep horns, firestones, ferns, and window grids.

Wumeng Mountain

In the Wumeng Mountain (乌蒙山) Yi region, both men and women wear right-overlap robes in blue or green, long or short. They wear long pants and wrap their heads with black or white cloth. A white belt is worn around the waist, and the shoes are embroidered with high nails, resembling “kite shoes” or “eagle head shoes.”

The men’s clothing is plain without any patterns, while women’s clothing features colorful floral patterns on the collar, sleeves, front edges, and hems.

Honghe

In the Honghe (红河) region, Yi men typically wear cross-collared short shirts with long pants. Women wear a variety of styles, including long robes, medium-length shirts, and short outfits, often complemented with sleeveless jackets and aprons. Their headwear is diverse, with silver balls and woolen flowers being popular accessories. The patterns are mostly natural designs, with geometric patterns being less common.

Southeastern Yunnan

The Yi women in Southeastern Yunnan (滇东南) wear right-overlap or cross-collared tops with long pants, and in some areas, skirts are worn. Men’s clothing consists of cross-collared robes, often with sleeveless jackets, and wide-legged pants. The clothing techniques include flower picking, embroidery, patchwork, and batik.

Western Yunnan

In Western Yunnan (滇西), Yi women’s attire typically includes a right-overlap robe, longer in the back than the front, with long pants, a waist-wrap, and a sleeveless jacket. In the counties of Weishan (巍山) and Midu (弥渡), women also wear woolen shawls wrapped around their backs. Men’s clothing consists of right-overlap long robes, sheepskin jackets, wide pants, and a blue scarf tied around the head.

Chuxiong

In Chuxiong (楚雄), the women’s traditional attire includes right-overlap short tops and long pants, with some regions wearing cross-collared shirts paired with floral skirts. The main techniques in their clothing are patchwork and flat embroidery, and the patterns are mostly floral.

In areas like Luquan (禄劝) and Xundian (寻甸), women’s ceremonial attire includes the ancient “Guantou” (贯头) dress, which is long in the back and short in the front, wide and sleeveless.

Men in these regions wear cross-collared jackets with sheepskin cloaks and long pants, with some still wearing firecloth or hemp clothing.

Architecture

Traditional Yi houses in Liangshan (凉山) are “tiled board houses,” while in northern and central parts of Guizhou and Yunnan, homes are made of mud, with styles such as “earth wall houses,” “square defense towers,” “wooden stilt houses,” and “eave panel houses.” In Guangxi and eastern Yunnan, Yi homes are typically “stilt-style” houses.

Yi villages are generally organized in a way where extended families live together. They are usually located in areas that are close to mountains, rivers, sunny yet sheltered from the wind, with fertile land and ample space for both farming and animal husbandry. Villages often cluster in valleys or at mid-mountain levels. Villages are formed around bloodline family groups, with the number of households ranging from a few to several dozen.

According to Yi customs, after a son marries, he is expected to build a new house, while parents live with the youngest son. “Tiled board houses” are built with simple materials such as mountain grass, bamboo, wood, sandy soil, and stones, with bricks and tiles being rare.

There are slight differences between the valley and high mountain areas. In valleys, houses are often mud-plastered with wooden board and tile roofs, and wooden partitions are used for interior walls. Beams, columns, and rafters are connected with wooden pegs. In high mountain areas, bamboo is used for walls, and bamboo rafters are often mixed with wood. The roofs are made of bamboo matting and stones, and the floors are typically compacted earth.

Today, Yi regions have largely transitioned to brick-and-tile houses, with some areas having buildings that maintain ethnic characteristics on the exterior but feature modern interior designs.

Food

The staple foods of the Yi people are potatoes, corn, buckwheat, and rice. They also eat a variety of side dishes, including meats, beans, vegetables, spices, and beverages. Meat dishes primarily consist of beef, mutton, pork, and chicken. When hosting guests, it is a tradition to slaughter livestock, with beef being considered the most prestigious, followed by mutton and pork. Common beans include soybeans, broad beans, and peas. A special method of preparing soybeans, called “Dulaba” (都拉巴), involves grinding soybeans into a paste and cooking it with fermented cabbage.

Spices mainly come from three wild plants: the leaves of the “Hala Gu” tree, the roots and flowers of the “Muku” tree, and the roots of the herbaceous plant “Qiepi Qieke” (切批切克). These plants all have a unique aromatic scent.

Beverages are primarily alcoholic, with Yi people highly valuing alcohol in hospitality. As the Yi saying goes, “The Han people value tea, the Yi people value alcohol,” and “A banquet cannot happen without alcohol, even if it means slaughtering pigs and sheep.” Common Yi alcoholic beverages include “Tantan wine” (坛坛酒), “Bucket wine” (桶酒), and “Water wine” (水酒).

In Liangshan, Yi people favor smoking orchid flowers, while other Yi groups enjoy smoking leaves.

Many Yi communities have adopted the habit of drinking tea, which was introduced from Han areas. In some regions, like the Yushe area (玉舍) in Shuicheng (水城) County, Guizhou, Yi people are skilled in tea cultivation. Before drinking, they roast the tea in a small jar to bring out its aroma before boiling it in water, a practice called “roasted tea” (烤茶).

Language and Writing

Language

The Yi language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. It has six main dialects: Northern, Eastern, Southern, Southeastern, Western, and Central, including five sub-dialects and 25 local varieties.

• Northern Dialect: Spoken in counties such as Ninglang (宁蒗) in Sichuan and Yunnan.

• Eastern Dialect: Found in Guizhou and northeastern Yunnan.

• Southern Dialect: Spoken in Yunnan and Guangxi.

• The remaining three dialects are distributed across different regions of Yunnan.

Writing

Yi script is an ideographic writing system, also referred to as a syllabary. Historically, it has been known by several names, such as “Cuànwen” (爨文), “Wèishū” (韪书), or “Luólúowén” (倮文), and is commonly called “Old Yi script.” This script originated around the 13th century, and it is estimated that over 10,000 characters exist, with around 1,000 commonly used. Each character represents a single meaning, and the script lacks radicals and components seen in other writing systems. The characters have various written forms, with the main direction being left to right, either vertically or horizontally.

The oldest Yi script inscription discovered is on a bronze bell from the Ming Dynasty, dating back to the 21st year of the Chenghua era (1485), found in Dafang County (大方县), Guizhou. Several Yi regions still preserve books written in Old Yi script, such as Le’e Teyi (勒俄特依), Mamu Teyi (玛穆特依), and Amni Re (阿姆尼惹), covering various categories like sacrificial texts, divination, calendars, genealogies, poetry, ethics, history, mythology, and translations.

Due to the linguistic diversity of Yi dialects, the pronunciation and written forms of characters vary greatly across regions. To make Yi script more accessible, in 1975, the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan standardized the Yi script using the Xide (喜德) dialect as the reference. A system of 819 standardized characters was introduced, along with a “Yi Pinyin” system to aid in pronunciation. The Chinese government approved this system in 1980, and it has since been widely used in the Yi regions of Sichuan.

Literature

Yi folk literature is diverse in form and rich in content, including poetry, mythology, legends, fairy tales, fables, proverbs, and riddles. Most of these are oral traditions passed down through generations.

Epic Poetry

Some of the epic poems of the Yi people include Le’e Teyi (勒俄特依), Mamu Teyi (玛穆特依), The Ancestry of Axi (阿细的先基), Southwest Yi Records (西南彝志), Hai Diegu (哈依迭古), Meige (梅葛), and Chamu (查姆).

Narrative and Lyric Poetry

Prominent narrative and lyric poems include My Little Beautiful Sister (我的幺表姝), Mother’s Daughter (妈妈的女儿), Ashima (阿诗玛), A Pair of Rainbows (一双彩虹), and Escape to Sweet Places (逃到甜蜜的地方).

Folk Stories and Legends

Yi folk tales and legends often reflect historical periods and societal characteristics. For instance, The Story of the Flood (洪水的故事) and The Origin of All Things (天地万物的起源) illustrate the Yi people’s understanding of human origins. Other stories like Flying Horse (飞马) and Luomu A Zhi (罗木阿智) depict the struggles between slaves and masters, celebrating the wisdom and intelligence of the laboring people. Yi folklore is rich with mythology, including stories such as Wang Jiudian (王九点), Ada Jilu (阿达吉鲁), and The Origin of Cattle (牛的来历).

Yi folk tales and fables, often short yet powerful, feature imaginative plots with profound meanings. Examples include The Dumb Water of the Sky God (天神的哑水), The Flute-playing Boy and the Fish Girl (吹笛少年与鱼女), and The Wild Goose Girl (大雁姑娘).

Proverbs and Sayings

Yi proverbs, called “Erbi Erji” (尔比尔吉), are an important form of oral literature. They are characterized by concise, rhythmic phrases, rich imagination, and an easy-to-remember structure, making them highly popular among the Yi people. These proverbs serve as moral guides and customary laws, helping people navigate social situations and relationships.

Calendar

The Yi people use a traditional calendar known as the “October Solar Calendar” (十月太阳历), which is based on the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, rather than the lunar cycle, hence it is also referred to as the “Solar Calendar.”

There are two methods for observing the October Solar Calendar:

1. Observing the Sun’s Movements: This method is used to determine the winter and summer seasons.

2. Using the Big Dipper’s Orientation: The position of the Big Dipper’s handle is observed to determine cold and warm periods.

This calendar divides the year into 10 months, each with 36 days, and uses the 12 zodiac signs to mark days. It does not differentiate between long and short months, making it easier to use and remember. Since the Yi calendar is based on the solar movements and the Big Dipper to define the seasons, it provides an accurate way to distinguish the seasons, which is why it has been praised by researchers as a “Civilized October Solar Calendar.”

The October Solar Calendar is considered one of the Yi people’s major contributions to Chinese civilization.

Customs

Festivals

Yi festivals are a significant part of their culture, reflecting their agricultural lifestyle, religious beliefs, and social customs. These festivals are categorized into agricultural festivals, sacrificial festivals to gods and ancestors, commemorative festivals for heroes and historical events, celebratory festivals for harvests and victories, and social entertainment festivals such as song and dance. Some of the most important Yi festivals include:

Yi New Year

Yi New Year, known as Kushi (库施) in Yi, is a major traditional festival for the Yi people in Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guizhou. The date varies based on local customs but generally falls between mid and late October or early November in the lunar calendar.

Torch Festival

The Torch Festival, held on the 24th of June in the lunar calendar, lasts for three days. During this time, people gather in the open fields or gentle slopes near their villages to sing, dance, race horses, fight bulls and sheep, wrestle, and participate in beauty contests. The festival is lively and full of various activities. In the morning, animals are sacrificed to honor ancestors, and in the evening, people parade with torches through the fields to burn pests and pray for a bountiful harvest.

Other festivals include the Mountain Worship Festival on the 3rd of March (lunar calendar) in western Guizhou and southeastern Yunnan, Dragon Worship Festival in Shipei, Yuanyang, and Weishan, Flower Insertion Festival on the 8th of February in Chuxiong, Bow Jumping Festival in northern Guangxi and southern Yunnan, and Forest Protection Festival in Longlin, Guangxi.

Marriage and Family

Yi marriage customs emphasize in-group marriages, marriage within certain social ranks, and restrictions on certain familial relations. Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, inter-ethnic marriages were strictly forbidden, with severe punishments such as execution or expulsion from the family for violating these rules. Marriages within close family branches were also prohibited. The Yi follow strict hierarchical marriage systems, where the higher ruling class (Zimo and Nohe) is not allowed to marry lower social classes (Quno, Aga, and Xixi). Marriage between different ethnic groups, such as Yi and non-Yi people, was often punished severely.

Traditional Yi marriages also include the custom of “transfer marriage,” where a widow is expected to marry her deceased husband’s sibling or close relative if they have children but no heirs. In cases where a Yi family has no children, the assets are divided by the family branch in a practice called “eating the estate.”

With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the restrictions on intra-ethnic and hierarchical marriages have been relaxed. Yi young people are now free to marry based on love, leading to inter-ethnic, inter-hierarchical, and international marriages.

Yi marriages are mostly monogamous. Before the formation of the People’s Republic of China, polygamy existed in some regions, especially due to the practice of “transfer marriage” or the need for a second wife when there were no heirs. In some areas, “brother marriages” and “sister marriages” also existed. Traditionally, the Yi family structure is patriarchal, and men are the head of the household with decision-making power over family wealth and the marriages of their children. Women traditionally had little say in family matters or property rights, but these roles have gradually changed in modern times, with growing gender equality in Yi households.

Yi weddings retain ancient customs, such as water-throwing, blackening the bride’s face, and the bride’s pre-wedding fasting. A formal engagement ceremony takes place where both parties kill a pig and examine the liver and gallbladder for signs of compatibility. If the liver is large and the gallbladder clear, the marriage is considered auspicious.

Funeral and Burial

In most Yi regions, burial is the traditional funeral practice, but in Liangshan, Sichuan, the Yi people practice cremation. After cremation, the ashes are often stored in bags and carried by horse to a secluded cave. An “Anling” (安灵) ceremony is held, where a bamboo stick wrapped with white wool and red thread is placed inside a wooden rod, creating a spiritual tablet called Madu (马都). The spiritual tablet is hung in the most sacred place of the house. After the death of both parents, a grand ceremony is held, and the Madu is moved to a cave, far from human settlements, for burial.

In the Yi regions of Guizhou, Yunnan, and Guangxi, burial practices are more influenced by Han Chinese traditions, with an emphasis on earth burials.

Population

According to the 2010 Census, the Yi population in China is 8,714,393. The China Statistical Yearbook – 2021 reports the Yi population as 9,830,327.