Mongolian Ethnic Minority

The Mongolian (蒙古族) people are a traditional nomadic ethnic group primarily distributed in East Asia. They are one of China’s recognized ethnic minorities and the dominant ethnic group in Mongolia (蒙古国). The Mongolian people are also found in countries like Russia (俄罗斯) and other Eurasian nations. Some subgroups, such as the Ewenki (鄂温克族) and Tu (土族) people, are sometimes considered branches of the Mongolian ethnic group.

Historical Background

The Mongolian people trace their origins to the area on the eastern bank of the Wangjian River (望建河), which is now known as the Erguna River (额尔古纳河). In the early 13th century, under the leadership of Genghis Khan (成吉思汗), the Mongol tribes unified, forming a new ethnic community. This led to the establishment of the Mongol Empire (蒙古帝国), which played a significant role in world history.

Historically, the Mongolian people have been primarily engaged in pastoralism and led a nomadic lifestyle, often moving with the seasons to find water and pasture for their livestock. While this lifestyle has diminished in modern society, it remains a symbol of Mongolian culture.

Language and Culture

The Mongolian people have made significant contributions to scientific, cultural, and artistic fields. Mongolian music and dance have a prominent place in the arts. The Secret History of the Mongols (《蒙古秘史》), The Golden History of the Mongols (《蒙古黄金史》), and The Origins of the Mongols (《蒙古源流》) are considered the three major historical works of the Mongols, with the Secret History of the Mongols being recognized by UNESCO as a world cultural heritage. The Jangar Epic (江格尔), an epic poem, is one of China’s three greatest epics.

The Mongolian language is written using Uighur script (回鹘式蒙古文) and Cyrillic Mongolian (西里尔蒙古文). The main languages spoken by the Mongolian people include Mongolian (蒙古语), Wula (卫拉特语), and Buryat Mongolian (巴尔虎布里亚特蒙古语).

Demographics and Population

Globally, there are approximately 10 million Mongols (蒙古族) worldwide. According to the China Statistical Yearbook-2021 (中国统计年鉴-2021), the population of Mongols in China (中国) is approximately 6.29 million (6290204) people.

Religion

The Mongolian people follow various religious beliefs, including Buddhism (佛教), Taoism (道教), Islam (伊斯兰教), Catholicism (天主教), Christianity (基督教), and Eastern Orthodoxy (东正教).

Ethnic Identity and Origin of the Name

The term “Mongol” was originally used by one of the Mongolian tribes, believed to have been based in the Eastern Hu (东胡) region. Over time, the term evolved to include other Mongol tribes in the northern desert and the grasslands, becoming a common name for these tribes.

The Mongol people self-identify as “Mongol” (蒙古), which means “eternal fire.” They are often referred to as the “horseback people” due to their deep connection with horses and their nomadic lifestyle. In ancient Mongolian, the word “Mongol” signified “simple” or “pure.” Some also interpret “Mongol” as “heavenly tribe” (天族). The earliest recorded form of the name “Mongol” in Chinese can be found in the Old Book of Tang (《旧唐书》) and Song Dynasty (宋代) texts. The term “Mengwu” (蒙兀) is the earliest recorded Chinese transliteration of “Mongol,” dating back to the Tang Dynasty (唐代).

History of the Mongolian People

Ancient and Early History

According to the History of the Mongols (《蒙古秘史》) and the Old Book of Tang (《旧唐书》), the Mongols trace their origin back to a legend in which a Mongol tribe was nearly destroyed after being defeated by other tribes. Only two men and two women survived, escaping to a place surrounded by mountains and fertile grasslands, called Erguna Kun (额尔古纳昆) — “the steep mountain slopes.” This place, located by the Erguna River (额尔古纳河), is regarded as the birthplace of the Mongolian people, flowing through the Hulunbuir Prairie (呼伦贝尔草原).

Initially, the Mongolian tribes only consisted of the Niegu (涅古斯) and Qiyan (乞颜) clans. After being defeated by other Turkic tribes, they were forced to retreat to the Erguna River (额尔古纳河) and later expanded, leading to the formation of 70 sub-branches of Mongolian tribes known as “Die’er Leqin Mongol” (迭儿勒勤蒙古).

The Mongolian legend also mentions Cang Lang (苍狼) and Bai Lu (白鹿), who are said to be the ancestors of Genghis Khan (成吉思汗). According to Mongolian tradition, they were sent to the human world by the heavens and went on to live and thrive at the headwaters of the Onan River (斡难河), giving birth to the progenitor of Genghis Khan’s family line.

Early Mongol Tribes and Development

Scholars believe that the Mongols are descended from the Donghu (东胡), an ancient tribe that lived east of the Xiongnu (匈奴). The Donghu tribe, which comprised several smaller tribes, led a nomadic life around the 5th to 3rd century BC. The Xianbei (鲜卑), one of the Donghu tribes, split into different groups over time, including the Qidan (契丹), the ancestors of the Khitan (契丹), and the Shiwe (室韦), who lived along the Amur River (黑龙江).

During the 4th century, the Shiwei (室韦) people began to divide into five groups: Southern Shiwei (南室韦), Northern Shiwei (北室韦), Bo Shiwei (钵室韦), Shenmo Shiwei (深末恒室韦), and Da Shiwei (大室韦). These groups were precursors to later Mongol tribes.

The term “Tatar” (达怛) gradually became synonymous with the Mongol tribes, particularly in reference to their dominance in the region. The word “Mongol” (蒙古) gradually replaced “Tatar” as the name for the Mongol people.

Unification of the Mongol Tribes

In 1206, Temüjin (铁木真), known as Genghis Khan (成吉思汗), was proclaimed the Great Khan (蒙古大汗) at the Kurultai (忽里勒台) held near the Onan River (斡难河). This event marked the unification of the Mongol tribes and the foundation of the Great Mongol Empire (大蒙古国). Under Genghis Khan’s leadership, the Mongols initiated a series of conquests, including three westward campaigns that led to the establishment of the Ilkhanate (伊儿汗国), Chagatai Khanate (察合台汗国), Golden Horde (窝阔台汗国), and Kipchak Khanate (钦察汗国).

These conquests also extended the Mongol Empire into China, with Kublai Khan (忽必烈) eventually establishing the Yuan Dynasty (元朝). The Mongol Empire at its peak spanned from Siberia (西伯利亚) in the north to the South China Sea (南海), from the Amur River (黑龙江) and Ussuri River (乌苏里江) in the east to Myanmar (缅甸) and Thailand (泰国) in the southwest.

The Decline and Fragmentation of the Mongol Empire

Following the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368, the Mongol tribes retreated to the Mongolian Plateau (蒙古草原). The Mongol tribes were subsequently divided into Eastern Mongol and Western Mongol factions, with the Eastern Mongol primarily under the descendants of Kublai Khan and the Western Mongol under various other tribal chiefs.

By the 15th century, Dayan Khan (达延汗) managed to reunify the Mongol people into several distinct tribes. The Khalka (喀尔喀) Mongols were the dominant group in Inner Mongolia (内蒙古), while other tribes like the Oirat (厄鲁特) lived in the west.

Mongolian Expansion and the Qing Dynasty

The Mongols continued to play a significant role in East Asia until the rise of the Manchu (满洲) Qing Dynasty. After the Qing (清朝) conquered Mongolia in the mid-17th century, it imposed the Banner System (盟旗制度) to control Mongol territories. Mongol rulers were integrated into the Qing system, and the Dalai Lama (达赖喇嘛) became an important figure in Mongol society.

The Independence of Mongolia

The Russian Empire (沙俄) had territorial ambitions in Mongolia from the 18th century, which culminated in the Russo-Japanese War (日俄战争) and the eventual independence of Outer Mongolia (外蒙古) in 1921. Sukhe Bator (苏赫巴特尔) and Khorloogiin Choibalsan (霍尔洛·乔巴山), inspired by the Russian Revolution (俄国十月革命), led the Mongolian People’s Revolution (蒙古人民革命), which ultimately resulted in the founding of the Mongolian People’s Republic (蒙古人民共和国) in 1924.

In 1945, with the backing of the Soviet Union (苏联), Mongolia’s independence was internationally recognized, and the People’s Republic of Mongolia (蒙古人民共和国) continued to exist until 1990, when Mongolia became a multi-party democratic state, officially changing its name to Mongolia (蒙古国).

Modern Mongolia

The influence of the Soviet Union on Mongolia (蒙古) began to fade after the collapse of the USSR, and Mongolia transitioned to a market economy and democratic political system. The country has since seen a resurgence of national identity and cultural revival, focusing on its nomadic heritage and traditional customs.

Population Overview

During the Era of Genghis Khan

The total population of the Mongolian grasslands during the reign of Genghis Khan was around 1.7 million. By the time the Mongol Empire was officially established in 1206, after more than twenty years of warfare, the population of the Mongol Empire was estimated to be no less than 1.5 million. According to Russian historian V.V. Bartol’d, the Mongol military forces near the end of Genghis Khan’s reign numbered about 129,000 troops.

Population Distribution in China

According to the 2010 Sixth National Population Census, the Mongolian population in China is approximately 6.5 million. The majority of the Mongol population is concentrated in Inner Mongolia (内蒙古) and the Northeast (东北), with smaller populations in Xinjiang (新疆), Hebei (河北), and Qinghai (青海). Additionally, there are Mongolian communities in Henan (河南), Sichuan (四川), Guizhou (贵州), Beijing (北京), Yunnan (云南), and other regions.

Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region

Before 1949, the population in Inner Mongolia was characterized by high birth and death rates, with low natural population growth. After the establishment of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Government, the population in the pastoral areas began to recover. In 1961, the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region’s Bureau of Statistics reported that the Mongolian population had reached 1.213 million, an increase of 45.79% compared to 1947. Following this, due to agricultural production, many people moved into the pastoral areas. From 1987 to 2000, the population in the pastoral regions of Inner Mongolia maintained steady growth without significant fluctuations. According to the 2010 population census, the Mongolian population in Inner Mongolia was 4,226,093.

According to the China Statistical Yearbook 2021, the total population of Mongols in China is 6,290,204.

Population in Mongolia

According to data released by the National Statistics Office of Mongolia on July 15, 2013, the Mongol population in Mongolia is approximately 2.28 million.

Population in Russia

Russia is home to about 900,000 Mongols (2009 data), including the Buryat Mongols (布里亚特蒙古人) in Siberia (西伯利亚) and the Kalmyk and Dörbet Mongols (卫拉特人) (including the Kalmyk people (卡尔梅克人) and Dörbet people (杜尔伯特人)).

Mongol Populations in Other Regions

• South Korea: 34,000

• United States: 15,000–18,000

• Czech Republic: 7,515

• Japan: 5,401

• Germany: 3,852

• United Kingdom: 3,701

• France: 2,859

• Turkey: 2,645

• Kazakhstan: 2,523

Global Total

The total Mongol population worldwide is approximately 10 million.

Politics

Early Mongol Empire

In 1206, the Mongol leader Temüjin (铁木真), later honored as Genghis Khan (成吉思汗), unified the Mongol tribes and established the Mongol Empire (蒙古帝国). Genghis Khan and his descendants launched extensive military campaigns, and with the establishment and expansion of the Mongol Empire, Mongol power spread across the Eurasian region. However, internal power struggles over the Khanate (汗国) and succession increasingly created crises within the “Golden Family” of Genghis Khan. This tension became more evident during Genghis Khan’s lifetime. To balance the interests of his descendants, Genghis Khan divided the empire among his sons, creating the four major Khanates (四大汗国). These lands generally correspond to present-day Xinjiang (新疆) and the Central Asian region to the west and north.

• The eldest son, Jebe (术赤), was granted land to the west of the Erqi River and the area north of Khwarezm (花剌子模), which corresponds to present-day Russia. After his death, his son Batu (拔都) established the Khanate of Kipchak (钦察汗国), centered around the Volga River, in 1243.

• The second son, Chagatai (察哈台), was assigned the lands between the Amu Darya (阿母河) and Syr Darya (锡尔河) rivers.

• Genghis Khan’s fifth son, Kublai Khan (阔列坚), was given lands in the northern steppe.

• The youngest son, Tolui (拖雷), inherited his father’s pastoral lands, military forces, and population, without a separate territory. After Chagatai’s death, his grandson, Khulagu (合剌旭烈), succeeded him.

Yuan Dynasty (元朝)

The Yuan Dynasty (元朝), founded by Kublai Khan (忽必烈), unified China (中国). The unification helped the development of a multi-ethnic state and introduced the system of provincial governance to effectively manage China. While Kublai Khan was the emperor of China, he also maintained the title of “Great Khan” (大汗) of the Mongols, remaining the Mongol supreme leader and receiving recognition from other Mongol states until the end of the Yuan Dynasty, when the empire retreated to the northern steppe following the northern campaigns of the Ming Dynasty (明朝).

Qing Dynasty (清朝)

During the Qing Dynasty (清朝), the government implemented special management for Inner Mongolia (内蒙古). It used marriage alliances to bond with the Mongol tribal leaders, with royal family members marrying leaders and their sons or nephews. Politically, the Qing Dynasty practiced a “Zasak system” (扎萨克制), or the banner system (盟旗制度), which divided the territory for effective governance.

Mongolian Independence Movements

In 1921, Outer Mongolia (外蒙古) established a pro-Soviet constitutional monarchy on July 11. In November of the same year, Outer Mongolia declared a “People’s Revolutionary Government” and signed the Treaty of Sino-Soviet Friendship (苏蒙修好条约) with the Soviet Union (苏联) in 1922. The Beijing government (北京政府) condemned Outer Mongolia’s attempts to separate from the Republic of China (中华民国) and refused to recognize its independence.

On April 17, 1924, the Mongol monarch, the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (哲布尊丹巴活佛), passed away. On November 26 of the same year, with the support of the Soviet Union and the Third International (第三国际), the Mongolian People’s Party (蒙古人民党) abolished the constitutional monarchy and declared the establishment of the Mongolian People’s Republic (蒙古人民共和国), with its capital in Khurelen (库伦), which was later renamed Ulaanbaatar (乌兰巴托). The year 1911 was adopted as the beginning of the Mongolian era of independence. Soviet troops were allowed to be stationed in Mongolia, although this was not recognized by China or major powers like the United States, the United Kingdom, and France.

In 1961, the United Nations Security Council (联合国安理会) voted on October 25 to admit the Mongolian People’s Republic into the UN with 9 votes in favor, 0 against, and 1 abstention (the United States).

Mongolia’s Modern Changes

In the early 1990s, the Mongolian People’s Republic was renamed Mongolia (蒙古国) and abandoned Marxism-Leninism.

Mongolian Ethnic Minority: Science and Contributions

Astronomy and Calendar

Mongolian Astronomers

Mongolian astronomer and mathematician Ming Antu (明安图) worked for several decades at the Qintianjian (钦天监) during the Qing Dynasty, contributing to the compilation of three key astronomical and calendrical texts: Lüli Yuanyuan (《律历渊源》), Lixiang Kaocheng Houbian (《历象考成后编》), and Yixiang Kaocheng (《仪象考成》). These works played a crucial role in the development of Chinese astronomy and calendar systems.

Mongolian Medicine

Traditional Mongolian Medicine

Mongolian medicine, known as Mongol Yi (蒙医), is a traditional healing practice developed over centuries through the Mongolian people’s experience in fighting diseases. It has a rich history, characterized by unique theories and treatment methods. The system is recognized for its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and efficiency in treating various ailments.

The fundamental principles of Mongolian medicine revolve around the balance of three forces: He Yi (赫依), Xi La (希拉), and Bada Gan (巴达干):

• He Yi: Refers to the vitality or energy behind various physiological functions. If He Yi becomes unbalanced, it can result in mental disturbances, insomnia, or forgetfulness.

• Xi La: Associated with heat, it governs body temperature, organ heat, and mental activity. An excess of Xi La can lead to heat-related symptoms such as bitterness in the mouth, nausea, or agitation.

• Bada Gan: Represents bodily fluids with cold characteristics. When Bada Gan is out of balance, it leads to symptoms of coldness, water retention, and increased secretion of bodily fluids.

Mongolian medicine has produced significant texts such as Sibu Ganlu (《四部甘露》), Shanhua Yan Fang (《珊瑚验方》), Mongolian Medical Canon (《蒙医金匮》), and many others that provide insights into Mongolian medical practices, formulas, and diagnostic techniques.

Mathematics

Contributions to Mathematics

Mongols have made significant contributions to the field of mathematics, most notably through the work of Ming Antu (明安图), who lived during the early Qing Dynasty. Ming Antu was one of the first to prove three trigonometric identities introduced from Europe. He worked for over thirty years to develop the “Circle Division and Proportional Method” (割圆连比例法), which allowed for the approximation of the circle’s circumference and was essential in establishing pi (π). His work is considered a precursor to calculus in China, and he is regarded as a pioneer in Chinese mathematics.

Ming Antu’s Jie Quan Mi Lu Jie Fa (《割圆密率捷法》), a four-volume mathematical treatise, provided rigorous proofs and further developed six formulas that surpassed the mathematical knowledge of the time. These formulas were instrumental in solving complex geometrical problems and helped establish the Mongolian contribution to global mathematical theory.

In addition to Ming Antu, another notable figure, Du Lun (都伦), made contributions to elementary mathematics in the late Qing period. He authored Yi Xiao Da Fang Suan Cao (《贻笑大方算草》), which is an important work in Mongolian mathematical literature.

Philosophy

Philosophical Development in Early Mongolia

In early Mongolia, due to limited production capacity and lack of understanding of natural phenomena, there was a strong emphasis on worshiping natural elements. Mountains such as Hanggai Mountain (杭爱山), Altai Mountain (阿尔泰山), and rivers like Ili River (伊犁河) and Irtysh River (额尔齐斯河) were revered as sacred, with the belief that nature possessed life and will, giving rise to a form of animism.

Post-Genghis Khan Era

After Genghis Khan (成吉思汗) established the Mongol Empire (蒙古帝国), the Mongol philosophy evolved with a stronger emphasis on Tengriism (天命), which linked the emperor’s authority to the heavens. Genghis Khan, and later Kublai Khan (忽必烈), utilized the belief in divine rule to consolidate their power and legitimize the monarchy.

With the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty (元朝) under Kublai Khan, Mongol philosophy further integrated with Buddhism (佛教). Buddhism became a central aspect of Mongolian thought, gradually overshadowing the original Tengriist beliefs. Mongols came to view the Khan as a figure not only chosen by heaven but also a manifestation of Buddha on earth. This fusion of Buddhist ideology with Mongol political and social structures marked a major philosophical shift.

Mongolian Scientific and Philosophical Thought

Mongolian thinkers like Ming Antu approached science and mathematics with a clear belief in materialism (唯物主义), seeing the natural world as governed by objective, universal laws. His work in mathematics was not merely a theoretical pursuit but a reflection of the natural world’s inherent order. His book Jie Quan Mi Lu Jie Fa (《割圆密率捷法》) exemplified the Mongolian philosophical approach to scientific inquiry, grounded in empirical evidence and logical reasoning.

The Mongol approach to philosophy was pragmatic and closely linked with daily life and societal needs. It reflected the culture’s adaptability, with an emphasis on understanding and explaining the natural world and its phenomena.

Economy

Early Mongolian society was primarily based on hunting and nomadic herding. Up until the 13th century, the Mongols still practiced the custom of “hunting with enclosures” (围猎). For a long period, livestock-based economy was the main economic structure of the Mongol people. It wasn’t until the 16th century, when fertile plains along riverbanks became available for cultivation, that the Mongols began to develop a mixed economy combining livestock raising and agriculture. By the early 20th century, the economic regions of the Mongols could be classified into pastoral areas, agricultural areas, and semi-pastoral, semi-agricultural areas.

Culture

Ethnic Totems

The Mongols worship various totems, including the wolf, deer, bear, yak, eagle, swan, and trees. The Secret History of the Mongols (《蒙古秘史》) opens with the following: “The ancestors of Genghis Khan were born under the will of heaven—Börte Chono (the wolf) and his wife Khuae Eman (the deer),” reflecting the Mongols’ worship of the wolf and deer as their totems.

In addition, influenced by Han Chinese culture, the Mongols also revered the dragon. Some tribes also worshipped tree and yak totems. These totemic myths reflect the characteristics of the Mongol people and share many similarities with the myths of the northern peoples, especially the Altaic language group, indicating the close relationships and cultural exchanges between them.

Wolf Totem

The wolf totem was originally the totem of the ancient Qiyan tribe (乞颜部落) of the Borjigin clan (孛儿只斤氏), which is recorded in both the Secret History of the Mongols and Mongolian Origins (《蒙古源流》). After several centuries of evolution, the wolf totem became recognized as the totem of the entire Mongol nation.

The Secret History of the Mongols clearly states: “The ancestors of Genghis Khan were born under the will of heaven—Börte Chono (the wolf) and his wife Khuae Eman (the deer). They crossed the Tenggis Sea and settled at the foot of the Ulaan Mountains near the Onan River, where they had a son named Batachikan.” This reflects an important historical event during the late Tang Dynasty when two Mongol tribes, symbolized by the wolf and the deer totems, moved westward from the Ergun River (额尔古纳河). The Book of Rites (《国语·周语》) records: “The Lord of Mu hunted the Canine Rong, capturing five kings and bringing back four white wolves and four white deer.”

In Mongolian Origins, it is recorded that Genghis Khan, during a hunt, issued a decree to release the “Yellow Mother Deer” (草黄母鹿) and the “Blue Wolf” (苍色狼), treating them as sacred animals. Similarly, in the Mongolian History of Dossan (《多桑蒙古史》), it was noted that Ogedei Khan (窝阔台) released a wolf in hopes of gaining longevity, but the wolf was later killed by hunting dogs, which Ogedei interpreted as an ominous sign, and he soon passed away.

Deer Totem

Mongol shamans believed that deer could summon spirits and drive away evil. In areas such as Inner Mongolia (内蒙古), the Baerhu (巴尔虎), Chahar (察哈尔), and Khorchin (科尔沁) regions, shamanic hats were decorated with iron deer antlers, and bronze mirrors and ritual drums depicted deer images. This suggests that the Mongols, especially forest hunters, revered the deer as their totemic spirit.

Eagle Totem

The Khorchin (科尔沁) Right Wing Dörbet (杜尔伯特) tribe traces its ancestry to the 27th generation of Genghis Khan’s brother, Khasar (哈萨尔). Their clan calls itself the Eagle clan, and the firstborn son or grandson of each generation is named after different types of eagles. According to The Secret History of the Mongols, Genghis Khan’s great-grandfather, a young boy named Bördanchar (孛端察儿蒙合黑), was abandoned by his four brothers and survived by hunting with an eagle. His descendants, the Borjigin clan, thus considered the eagle as their protector and revered it as a spiritual guardian.

Bear Totem

The Buryat (布里亚特) and Darhat (达尔哈特) people consider the bear to be a sacred ancestor, calling it “Otokgoh” (斡拖葛), meaning elder or ancestor. They believe humans are descended from bears and refer to them as grandfathers or fathers. The Darhat people follow specific customs and rituals when hunting bears, such as only hunting male bears at any time of the year, but waiting until the female bears have raised their cubs in spring before hunting them.

After capturing a bear, they eat the bear’s head meat, which is a legacy of the ancient “totem sacred meal” custom. Early humans believed that consuming the blood and flesh of their totem animals would strengthen their connection with the totem and restore its spiritual power.

Religious Beliefs

Shamanism (萨满教) is the ancient, primitive religion of the Mongols, where they worship various natural and ancestral spirits. Genghis Khan (成吉思汗) himself practiced shamanism and revered Tengri Khan (腾格里汗), the “Heavenly God.” Even during the Yuan Dynasty (元朝), shamanism continued to dominate Mongol society, retaining its influence among the royal family, nobility, and common people. The royal family performed ancestral worship and offered sacrifices to the imperial ancestors during key ceremonies. Genghis Khan and his successors took an inclusive approach toward religious practices, allowing various religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Christianity, and shamanism to coexist.

During the reign of Mongke Khan (蒙哥汗), both the royal family and the people practiced shamanism, while also supporting Islamic (伊斯兰教), Christian (基督教), Taoist (道教), and Buddhist (佛教) beliefs, actively participating in various religious ceremonies. The Yuan Dynasty similarly adopted this policy. Under the Yuan Dynasty, Muslim (伊斯兰教) communities built mosques across the empire, and Christianity also received attention and protection.

In the latter half of the 16th century, the Tümed Mongol (土默特) leader Altan Khan (俺答汗) invited the Gelug (格鲁派) school of Tibetan Buddhism (藏传佛教) to Mongolia, and in 1578, Altan Khan met with the 3rd Dalai Lama (达赖三世) Sonam Gyatso (索南嘉措) at the Yanghua Monastery (仰华寺) in Qinghai (青海), where they held a Buddhist ceremony. During this meeting, Altan Khan conferred upon the Dalai Lama the title of “Holy Recognition of All Wazir Dalai Lama” (圣识一切瓦齐尔达喇达赖喇嘛), marking the origin of the Dalai Lama title.

Afterward, Tibetan Buddhism flourished in Mongolia with the support of the Ming (明朝) and Qing (清朝) dynasties, though shamanism continued to survive in the eastern regions of Mongolia in forms such as ritual worship, divination, and healing.

Language and Script

The Mongols have their own language and writing system. The Mongolic language belongs to the Altaic language family, with four main dialects: Inner Mongolian (内蒙古), Wailat (卫拉特), Buryat (巴尔虎布利亚特), and Khorchin (科尔沁).

Traditional Mongolian script can be traced back to 1204, when the Uighur scribe Tatar Tünté (回鹘人塔塔统阿) was captured by the Mongols. Genghis Khan praised his loyalty and granted him an equal rank, leading to the creation of the Mongolian script derived from the Uighur script. Initially, the script was written horizontally, but later, it became vertical. The Mongols explained this shift by noting that it was more convenient to write vertically when on horseback.

In the late 13th century, Emperor Kublai Khan (忽必烈) introduced the “Phags-pa script” (八思巴字), which was later adopted across the Yuan Empire. This complex script, created by Kublai Khan’s court monk, Lozhenjan (洛哲坚赞), was intended to unify the written communication between Mongolian, Chinese, and Tibetan languages, but it was primarily used by the upper class.

In the 14th century, Mongolian scholar Qijig (却吉·斡斯尔) reformed the script, leading to the standardized Mongolian script used today. Mongols in Yunnan (云南) speak both the Yi language (彝语) and Chinese (汉语), and their Mongolian language is mutually intelligible with Northern Mongolian.

In the 1940s, under Soviet influence, Mongolia (蒙古国) established a “Language Reform Committee” (文字改革委员会), which abolished the Uighur-derived script in favor of the Cyrillic-based Mongolian script (西里尔蒙古文). However, some schools in Mongolia still teach the Uighur script, but its usage is limited, and both parents and students show little interest in learning it.

Art

The Mongols are a music-loving and dance-loving people, often referred to as the “musical nation” and the “poetic nation.” For centuries, Mongols have lived a nomadic lifestyle, following the water and pasturelands, and through their long history, they have created a rich and valuable musical heritage. Mongolian folk songs are distinguished by their unique vocal style, with both national features shared across the entire ethnic group and distinct regional characteristics.

Mongolian dance has a joyful rhythm with vigorous and forceful movements, characterized by shoulder shakes, arm movements, and the iconic horse-riding stance. Classic traditional Mongolian dances include the “Horse Sword Dance,” “Chopstick Dance,” “Andai Dance,” and “Bowl Dance.” The main traditional musical instruments are the horsehead fiddle (马头琴), “Yatoga” (蒙古筝, Mongolian zither), Mongolian pipa, Mongolian four-stringed instrument, and Mongolian war drums.

Architecture

The yurt (蒙古包) is a traditional Mongolian dwelling, a circular tent-like structure with a pointed roof. It consists of wooden lattice supports, a door frame, a crown, felt layers, leather ropes, and hair ropes.

In Chinese texts like the Book of Han (汉书), it is referred to as a “felt tent” or “dome hut.” In Mongolian texts, it is called “Wolugu Tager,” meaning a windowless house. Modern Mongolian refers to it as “Bumbugger” or “Mongolian Legeer,” meaning a round or Mongolian house. The word “包” (bag) comes from Manchu language, where the Manchu people called it “Mongol Bo,” meaning “house.” Since “博” (Bo) and “包” (Bao) sound similar, “yurt” has been passed down as a transliteration.

Music

Long Tune Folk Songs (长调民歌)

Mongolian herders created long tune folk songs to express their emotions and depict the nomadic lifestyle. Over time, these songs developed into a complete system, including various types like pastoral songs, praises, songs of homesickness, wedding songs, and love songs.

The long tune folk songs have a wide vocal range and melodious, smooth tunes with wave-like patterns that rise and fall, reflecting the vast natural environment of the steppe. The rhythm is prolonged with few words, incorporating narrative, lyrical, and ornamental rhythmic styles like the “Nogrula” rhythm, which forms the unique rhythmic movement of long tune folk songs.

Hao Lai Bao (好来宝)

Hao Lai Bao, also known as “Hao Li Bao,” is a form of performance art where one or more performers sit and use instruments like the “si hu” to provide accompaniment while reciting and singing in Mongolian. It dates back to around the 12th century AD.

The term “Hao Lai Bao” in Mongolian means “sing in a connected way” or “string together songs.” The lyrics are typically four-line verses, often with rhyming schemes that can vary from four-line rhymes to long uninterrupted rhyming verses. Performances can be either long or short, with performers often improvising their lyrics. The content of these performances can be narrative or lyrical, ranging from praise to satire. The rhetoric includes metaphors, exaggerations, parallelism, and repetition, giving the performance a humorous, fast-paced, and expressive quality.

Since the early 20th century, Hao Lai Bao performances have diversified into different forms, such as the simpler oral performance called “Yabugan,” and performances accompanied by instruments, classified into “Hu Ren Hao Lai Bao” (with “huqin” accompaniment) and “Nairle Hao Lai Bao” (with various instruments). There are also different performance formats depending on the number of performers, either a solo or a duet.

Uliger (乌力格尔)

Uliger, meaning “storytelling” in Chinese, is a Mongolian form of storytelling or recitative art. In Mongolian folk culture, Uliger performed without instrumental accompaniment is called “Yabagan Uliger” or “Hurei Uliger.” If accompanied by a chaor (traditional Mongolian lute), it is called “Chaoren Uliger,” and when accompanied by the “si hu,” it is known as “Hu Ren Uliger.”

This form of art is widely spread across Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, and the Mongolian regions of China, as well as Mongolia. In regions like Liaoning Province, Jilin Province, and Inner Mongolia’s Ke’erqin area, the “Hu Ren Uliger” is particularly popular.

Horsehead Fiddle (马头琴)

Among various traditional instruments, the horsehead fiddle is the most esteemed by the Mongol people. The horsehead fiddle is unique to Mongolia, known for its distinct style. The traditional version is approximately four feet in length, with a wooden body, and the head of the instrument carved in the shape of a horse’s head. It has two strings made from horsehair and uses a bow made from horsehair to produce deep, resonant sounds. Unlike other stringed instruments, the bow of the horsehead fiddle is drawn outside the strings rather than between them.

Four-stringed Instrument (四胡)

The Mongolian four-stringed instrument, known as “Si Hu,” is one of the most characteristic instruments of the Mongolian people. There are three types: high-pitched, medium-pitched, and low-pitched. The high-pitched Si Hu produces a bright and clear sound, often used in solos or ensembles. The medium and low-pitched versions have rich and full tones, suitable for playing lyrical music and accompanying storytelling arts like Uliger and Hao Lai Bao.

The Si Hu plays an important role in the cultural life of Mongolian people, with representative pieces such as “On the Road,” “Eight Tones,” “Asir” (for large Si Hu), “Modirema,” “Winding Grape Vines,” and “Lotus Flowers” (for small Si Hu). The rich culture and expressive melodies of the Si Hu make it a vital part of Mongolian folk music.

Painting

The earliest Mongolian art was rock painting created by nomads, often by folk artists, reflecting the people’s production and labor activities. During the Yuan Dynasty, several prominent Mongolian artists emerged. For example, the court painter Li Huosun painted portraits of Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan. Yu Chuhan was skilled in painting bamboo, and “Wind and Smoke on Green” is one of his masterpieces. Other renowned artists include Prince Xiao Gong, who created works like “Painting Deer” and “Butterfly,” as well as famous mural artists from the Yuan period like Aishan Tiemuer and Bai Yan Shouren.

Mongolian painting also found expression in murals, especially in Mongolian Buddhist temples and tombs. Murals often feature Mongolian figures, such as in Meidai Zhao, Dazhao, Wudang Zhao, and Wusutu Zhao temples.

Literature

Mongolian literature has a long history, with myths, hero epics, and songs praising achievements, vividly reflecting the life of early tribal societies, hunting and herding cultures, and the intense battles between primitive tribes. Classic epics like The Heroic Gungan and Janggir reflect the face of an era, leaving a deep impact on the development of Mongolian literature.

From the unification of Mongol tribes by Genghis Khan to the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols’ political and economic strength grew, fostering significant cultural exchanges with the Han Chinese, other ethnic minorities, and neighboring regions. This period led to a flourishing of Mongolian cultural traditions, marked by significant works like the Secret History of the Mongols (蒙古秘史) and the lyrical ballads Mother and Son Song (金宫桦皮书).

During the Ming Dynasty and into the Qing period, Mongolian literature faced a period of stagnation, referred to as a “snowy period,” due to feudal fragmentation. Despite this, the oral tradition of epic poetry continued, with works such as Geser (格斯尔) and Janggir (江格尔) being passed down through generations. These works, including adaptations of Chinese historical novels like Water Margin (水浒传) and Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义), continued to influence Mongolian storytelling.

Modern Mongolian literature emerged in response to national struggles, with strong social and political themes. Key works include Gada Meilin and anti-imperialist songs from the Japanese invasion.

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, influential writers like Na Sainchao Ketu and Ma Laching produced important works. New generations of writers have brought fresh perspectives to Mongolian literature, marking significant achievements in various literary fields. Additionally, the research and collection of Mongolian folk and classical literature have advanced, contributing to the growth of the literary heritage.

Dance

Mongolian dance, closely related to their hunting and nomadic life, plays an important role in their cultural expression. Early Mongolian dance forms are depicted in rock carvings from the Neolithic and Bronze Age. These dances often imitated fierce animals, such as the “White Sea Eagle” (白海青), bear, lion, and deer dances. Though these independent dance forms are mostly lost, elements still exist in shamanistic dances.

Mongolian dance is closely tied to the geographical and climatic conditions of the steppe. Since ancient times, the Mongols have worshipped the earth, mountains, and eagle totems, creating many music and dance forms, including the “Milking Dance” and “Chopstick Dance.” The most famous of these is the “Andai Dance” (安代舞), an important cultural expression of Mongolian heritage.

Customs

Transportation Habits

The traditional transportation methods of the Mongolian people are primarily based on livestock and vehicles. The main livestock used for transportation are horses and camels, while the primary vehicle is the “Lele” cart.

Horseback Riding

Mongols are famously known as a “horseback people.” In ancient times, both young and old used horses for transportation. The horse is not only a mode of transportation but also an essential part of Mongolian culture. Mongolians are highly skilled in understanding the nature of horses, and they typically practice extensive methods of horse breeding. There are several breeds of Mongolian horses, such as the Ujumchin Horse (乌珠穆沁马), Shangduhe Horse (上都河马), Ushen Horse (乌审马), Sanhe Horse (三河马), and the Khorchin Horse (科尔沁马).

The vast Mongolian grasslands, with their abundant pasture, are perfect for raising horses. Horses are active and consume large amounts of food, yet have small stomachs and digest food quickly. They often graze while simultaneously excreting. In the summer, to avoid mosquitoes and the intense heat, horses primarily graze at night to gain weight.

Mongols are raised on horseback from a young age, with horses regarded as a cradle for the Mongolian people. Mongolians view the horse as the most perfect and understanding animal in the world. Despite their fierce and robust nature, Mongolian horses are incredibly loyal to their owners. The Mongols treat horses as their companions and consider the horse’s head to be sacred. It is strictly forbidden to strike a horse’s head, insult it, or have two people ride the same horse. During the fattening period in autumn, it is also forbidden to make horses sweat by running them excessively.

Horsemen and riders carry tools like sweat scrapers and horse brushes to clean the horses after rides, helping to relax their muscles and remove fatigue. This is also a way for the owner to bond with the horse and deepen their emotional connection.

Horses are deeply embedded in the spiritual world of Mongols, inspiring countless poems, fables, proverbs, folk tales, songs, music, art, and sculptures. Mongols also celebrate numerous horse-related festivals such as the Horse Racing Festival (赛马节), Foal Festival (马驹节), Horse Milk Festival (马奶节), and Divine Horse Festival (神马节). The Genghis Khan Mausoleum (成吉思汗陵) on the Ordos Plateau houses a special horse, Wendu Gen Chagan, and two white horses of Genghis Khan.

In modern times, the role of the Mongolian horse in both urban and rural areas has gradually diminished. The number of Mongolian horses has rapidly decreased, leading the Mongols to realize the importance of preserving their traditional horses. Various organizations focused on the research and protection of Mongolian horses have begun operating in Inner Mongolia.

Camels

Camels are gentle, easy to tame, resilient to hunger and thirst, and can carry heavy loads. They produce milk, meat, and wool, and are highly versatile, unlike any other livestock. In the western region of Inner Mongolia, camels are plentiful and are essential for transportation. Known in Mongolian as “Temu” (特莫), camels serve as an indispensable transport tool for herders, suitable for both riding and carrying goods.

Standing at two to three meters tall, with long legs, camels can take steps of over one meter and travel 100 to 200 kilometers per day. They can endure long distances without fatigue and carry heavy loads of up to 200 kilograms, which is equivalent to the weight of a fine horse and two cattle. Often referred to as the “Ship of the Desert,” camels are the mainstay for cargo transport in desert regions. In the desert areas of western Inner Mongolia, camel caravans are often seen traveling long distances. Whether for desert exploration, sand control, or tourism, camels remain the steadfast companions of explorers and travelers.

Lele Cart

The Lele cart, also known as the “Lulu Car” or “Cow Cart,” is an ancient transportation vehicle used on the northern grasslands. This small cart features tall, double wheels with diameters of around 1.5 to 1.6 meters. It is typically made entirely of birch or elm wood, without any metal components, making it simple in structure, easy to manufacture, and repairable.

The cart is divided into two parts: the lower part consists of the wheels, spokes, and axle, while the upper part includes two shafts and ten crossbars. The cart’s wheels are made by carving twelve wooden rims, which are then connected to form a round wheel, supported by approximately 36 spokes. The upper part has two long shafts, about four meters in length, secured by ten crossbars.

A single Lele cart weighs around 100 kilograms and can carry between 500 to 1,000 kilograms of goods. It is a sturdy and reliable vehicle that has served Mongolian herders and traders for centuries.

Festivals

Mongolian New Year (Spring Festival)

• Date: First day of the first month in the lunar calendar (农历正月初一)

The Mongolian New Year, also known as Tsagaan Sar (春节), is a major holiday for the Mongol people. It is celebrated at the same time as the traditional Spring Festival, marked by family reunions, feasts, and a series of ceremonial activities to honor ancestors and wish for a prosperous year ahead.

Genghis Khan Memorial Day

• Date: 17th day of the third month in the lunar calendar (农历三月十七日)

Genghis Khan Memorial Day honors the great Mongol emperor, Genghis Khan (成吉思汗), the founder of the Mongol Empire. It is a day for Mongols to pay homage to their legendary ancestor and reflect on his legacy.

Nadam Fair

• Date: Seventh to eighth month in the lunar calendar (农历七～八月)

The Nadam Fair (那达慕大会) is one of the most important festivals in Mongolian culture. Traditionally celebrated during the summer months, it is a grand festival where Mongols gather to participate in traditional sports such as horse racing, wrestling, and archery, as well as to celebrate Mongolian culture with performances and feasts.

Obou Festival

• Date: 13th day of the seventh month in the lunar calendar (农历七月十三日)

The Obou Festival (敖包节) is a traditional Mongolian festival that celebrates the symbolic and religious significance of the Obou—stone heaps that are used for worship. It is believed that the Obou represents sacred sites and spirits that guide and protect Mongol herders.

Rituals

Tengger Khan Worship

• Mongolian Name: Tengger Khan (腾格里汗)

Tengger Khan is a central deity in Mongolian Shamanism, often regarded as the “Heavenly Emperor” or “God of the Sky.” Mongols traditionally worship Tengger Khan as the ruler of the upper world and the master of natural phenomena. The worship of Tengger Khan is an important ritual for Mongols. This ritual can be performed in two forms: the “White Worship,” which involves offering traditional dairy products, and the “Red Worship,” which involves sacrificing sheep and using their blood in the ceremony. These rituals are typically conducted in early July.

Fire Worship

Mongolian herders and hunters have a deep reverence for fire, influenced by the ancient beliefs of Shamanism. Fire is considered a sacred element that originated during the creation of the world. In Mongolian tradition, Wodegala Khan (火神母), the “Mother of Fire,” is worshiped with great respect.

Fire worship consists of two primary rituals:

• Annual Fire Festival: This ritual is conducted on the 23rd day of the 12th month in the lunar calendar (阴历腊月二十三). Under the guidance of an elder, offerings of butter, white wine, and meat from cows and sheep are thrown into the fire to express gratitude and pray for blessings in the coming year.

• Monthly Fire Ritual: A monthly fire ritual is held on the first or second day of each month to show respect for fire and maintain harmony with nature.

In addition, there are numerous taboos related to fire, such as not throwing water onto the fire, not stirring the fire with knives or sticks, and not spitting on the fire.

Obou Worship

The Obou (敖包) worship is a sacred Mongolian ritual involving the worship of stone heaps, typically performed during the flourishing season when pastures are abundant.

An Obou is a large mound of stones constructed at scenic and elevated locations, often topped with religious scriptures or livestock horns. During the ritual, offerings of cooked meats from cattle and sheep are made. The ceremony is led by a prayer master who recites prayers, and participants, including people of all ages, gather to worship and pray for a bountiful year. After the ritual, competitive events such as horse racing, archery, and wrestling are often held.

The Obou worship is rooted in the Mongolian people’s deep reverence for their homeland, particularly the Erguna Mountain (额尔古纳山) region, which is considered the ancestral land of the Mongols. This ceremony, which originated in Mongolian Shamanism, has evolved into an annual festival celebrating Mongolian identity and honoring the Mongol ancestors.

Taboos

Daily Life Taboos

1. When approaching a yurt (蒙古包) while riding a horse or driving a vehicle, it is forbidden to ride quickly or heavily, as it may disturb the livestock.

2. If there is a fire pit or red cloth tied outside a yurt, it indicates that there is a sick person or a woman in childbirth inside, and outsiders should not enter.

3. Guests are not allowed to sit on the west side of the bed, as the west is considered sacred, used for worshipping Buddha.

4. Mongols avoid eating meat from animals that have died naturally, and they do not consume donkey, dog, or white horse meat.

5. During funerals, red and white colors are avoided, while black and yellow colors are forbidden during festive occasions.

6. It is forbidden to dry shoes, socks, or pants on a fire pit, and there are strict prohibitions against smoking, spitting, or touching sacred objects in temples.

7. Hunting near temples is also prohibited.

Fire Taboos

Mongols worship fire, the fire god, and the hearth god, believing them to be sacred and capable of driving away evil spirits. In Mongolian tradition:

1. It is forbidden to dry your feet over the fire, and no wet boots or shoes should be placed near it.

2. Crossing over the stove, or using your feet to push against it, is strictly prohibited.

3. You should not hit tobacco pipes, break items, or throw garbage into the stove.

4. Knives should not be used to poke the fire, nor should knives be inserted into the fire or used to take meat from a pot.

Water Taboos

Water is considered a pure and sacred spirit in Mongolian culture. Taboos related to water include:

1. It is forbidden to wash hands or bathe in rivers, especially washing dirty clothes or throwing unclean items into the water.

2. Due to the dry and water-scarce environment, Mongol herders value water as the source of life and take care to keep it clean. Water is also viewed as essential for survival on the grasslands.

Marriage Customs

Marriage System

Mongolian society traditionally practiced two types of marriage systems: abduction marriage and arranged marriage.

• Abduction Marriage: In the early period, before the 13th century, Mongols mostly practiced abduction marriages, where the groom would abduct the bride by force or through negotiation. For example, Esugei, the father of Genghis Khan, abducted Atoqer, the future wife of Khabulan.

• Arranged Marriage: Starting from the 13th century, Mongols entered a feudal society, and arranged marriages became common, although remnants of the abduction tradition remained. In tribal warfare, abduction or plunder marriages were still common.

Courtship

Before a marriage is arranged, the groom must formally ask for the bride’s hand. Traditionally, before the establishment of New China, the groom’s parents or an intermediary would approach the bride’s family to seek permission for the engagement. If the bride’s family agreed, the engagement would be confirmed. According to Mongol customs, the groom had to ask several times before receiving consent.

In the Secret History of the Mongols (《蒙古秘史》), it is recorded that Esugei led his son Temujin (Genghis Khan) to ask for the hand of De’xe Chagan (a significant historical figure) several times before receiving approval.

Dowry and Bridal Gifts

After the engagement is confirmed, the groom’s family gives gifts to the bride’s family, known as the bridal gifts. The size of the gift depends on the groom’s family wealth:

• In agricultural areas, gifts often consist of gold, silver, jewelry, cabinets, and clothing.

• In pastoral areas, livestock such as cattle, horses, and sheep are common bridal gifts.
  The number of livestock is considered auspicious, with odd numbers being preferred, such as 3, 5, or 7 heads of livestock, but never an even number.

Dowry

The bride’s family also provides a dowry, which is usually more significant than the groom’s bridal gift. The dowry typically includes clothing, household items, and other valuable possessions. There is a saying in Mongolian culture: “If you can afford the bride, you can’t afford the dowry.”

Selecting the Wedding Date

In Mongolian tradition, after the engagement, a Lama (monk) is invited to select an auspicious wedding date through divination. Once the date is confirmed, the groom’s family, accompanied by friends and family, visits the bride’s family with gifts such as khada (ceremonial scarf), wine, and candies, to finalize the wedding plans.

Wedding Ceremony

Mongolian weddings are significant and solemn occasions, though the form may vary by region. In the pastoral areas, the ceremony is particularly grand. On the wedding day, the groom and bride travel to the bride’s family home, where the groom circles the yurt (蒙古包) three times. They then walk through two bonfires to purify themselves and signify the purity of their love and the prosperity of their new life together. The ceremony includes a prayer and an offering to the fire god.

At the wedding feast, there are traditional foods such as mutton, milk-based dishes, sweets, and drinks. The groom and bride offer khada and wine to the elders, and the younger people drink and sing songs accompanied by the morin khuur (horsehead fiddle). The celebration often lasts for several days, with family and friends visiting the couple.

Fire Ritual

One of the most essential rituals in Mongolian weddings is the fire worship ceremony. The newlyweds must walk between two bonfires to purify their relationship, ensuring their love is strong and pure.

“Asking for the Name” Ceremony

This is a playful tradition during the wedding festivities. The groom and his family stay in the bride’s home overnight, and the “Asking for the Name” ceremony takes place. The groom is asked to kneel and ask the bride’s name. The bride, shy and playful, may avoid answering. The ceremony often involves singing traditional Mongolian songs and is considered a fun and important part of the wedding.

“Hat Stealing” Game

In the past, during the wedding procession, the groom and his family would race towards the bride’s home. The groom and the procession would try to prevent the bride’s family from stealing the groom’s hat, a symbolic contest of who would arrive first. The act of stealing or attempting to steal the groom’s hat was a fun game designed to add excitement to the journey.