Mosuo Ethnic People

The Mosuo (摩梭) people live in the northwestern part of Yunnan Province (云南省), primarily around Lugu Lake (泸沽湖) in Lijiang (丽江). The Mosuo population is around 50,000 people, and they speak the Mosuo language (摩梭语), though they do not have a written script. They are considered a branch of the Naxi (纳西) ethnic group. Additionally, Mosuo people are also found in counties such as Ninglang (宁蒗) in Yunnan and Yanyuan (盐源), Muli (木里) in Sichuan, with a population of around 40,000.

Historical Background

The term “Mosuo” has been recorded in historical texts in different forms. In Shiji (史记) and Hanshu (汉书), the Mosuo are referred to as Mongolian Qiang (牦牛羌). Originally a nomadic people, the Mosuo were known for raising yaks, and they were once called the “yak herders.”

The earliest mention of the term “Mosuo” is found in Hou Han Shu (后汉书) in the 23rd volume, where it is written as “Mosha Yi” (摩沙夷), referring to people who lived in salt mines. Over the centuries, their name evolved with different spellings, including “Moxie” (摩西) and “Mosuo” (摩娑), as recorded during the Tang (唐) and Song (宋) dynasties.

During the Warring States period, a leader named Qiong led the Mosuo people to migrate south to escape threats from the Qin state. Over time, they settled in areas near the Dadu River (大渡河) and the Yalong River (雅砻江). By the Han Dynasty, they were referred to as Moxie. Their migration led them to the present-day regions of Sichuan and Yunnan, specifically around Lugu Lake.

The Mosuo people have lived in the Lijiang (丽江) region for over 1,500 years, with historical records noting their settlement in Ninglang (宁蒗) and other areas, as well as their unique cultural identity, including the famous Mosuo genealogical records.

Social and Cultural Practices

The Mosuo people are famous for being the only matrilineal society in China, where the family lineage is passed through the mother. Their social structure and customs, particularly their marriage system, have garnered much attention. Known for their “walking marriages” (Axia marriage), Mosuo couples live separately and maintain individual households, with men visiting the women at night and returning to their own homes in the morning.

The Mosuo people have a strong connection to their Dongba culture (东巴文化) and their rituals, which are similar to those of the Naxi people. Their lifestyle is deeply intertwined with their matrilineal traditions, with women holding significant roles in decision-making and community leadership.

In modern times, the Mosuo have faced challenges regarding their ethnic identity, as the Chinese government initially classified them as part of the Naxi (纳西) ethnic group in Yunnan, and the Mongol (蒙古) ethnic group in Sichuan. Despite these classifications, the Mosuo continue to advocate for the recognition of their distinct ethnic identity.

Key Locations

Lugu Lake (泸沽湖) is the heart of Mosuo culture, where many of their traditions and customs are preserved.

Ninglang County (宁蒗) in Yunnan Province is home to a significant number of Mosuo people.

Yanyuan County (盐源) and Muli County (木里) in Sichuan also have Mosuo communities.

Religion and Beliefs

The Mosuo people follow an ancient religion called Dabaism (达巴教), which is closely related to the Dongba religion (东巴教) of the Naxi people in Lijiang. However, Dabaism has developed more slowly and retains a more primitive form of tribal religion. Unlike Dongbaism, which has a more organized structure, Dabaism lacks a systematic doctrine, sacred texts, religious organizations, and temples. Instead, it has oral traditions, including dozens of hymns and a form of divination known as the “Divination Book” (算日子书), which uses 32 different primitive pictorial symbols.

Rituals and Taboos

Coming-of-Age Ceremony

The Coming-of-Age ceremony is one of the most important rituals in a Mosuo person’s life. At the age of 13, Mosuo people are considered adults. For women, this involves a skirt ceremony, while men participate in the pants ceremony. Before the ceremony, children who have not yet reached adulthood wear a long linen shirt to cover themselves. After the ceremony, their attire changes, and they are eligible for a walking marriage (a unique form of marriage in the Mosuo culture), although most Mosuo individuals wait until they are around 16 or even 20 years old to participate in their first walking marriage.

The night before the ceremony, preparations begin as the participants and their peers stay awake all night, celebrating until the rooster crows, signaling the start of the ceremony. There is also a ritual of thanking the dog, an important animal in their culture.

The ceremony is usually presided over by the mother or the uncle. If the mother has passed away or there is no uncle, the date for the ceremony is determined by a Daba (a shaman), who performs a divination.

Skirt Ceremony (For Women)

The skirt ceremony is led by the mother, during which the young woman steps onto a pig’s fat and a grain sack. The mother then dresses her daughter in adult clothing. After the ceremony, the young woman calls a dog into the house and feeds it rice and a piece of pig fat, as a gesture of gratitude towards the dog. After the ceremony, women are expected to grow their hair into braids and may wear different ornaments like earrings, rings, and bracelets. They are also allowed to have their own flower loft (花楼), a symbol of adulthood and independence.

Pants Ceremony (For Men)

The pants ceremony is presided over by the uncle. The young man brings food like ba-ba (a local type of steamed bread) and cured meat to feed the dog, symbolizing gratitude towards the animal. The ceremony includes a symbolic act where the young man passes a long spear through the roof of the main house. The spear, traditionally one of the Mosuo people’s ancient weapons, is adorned with a flag and a knife given to the young man by his uncle. This knife is a lifelong weapon. After changing into adult clothing, the Daba chants prayers, and the young man bows to the guests and offers them drinks from a cowhorn cup.

Shyness Culture

The Mosuo people have strict cultural taboos related to modesty and shyness, especially in the Yongning (永宁) area. For example, it is considered inappropriate to mention anything related to sexuality in front of the fire pit or in the presence of relatives. Words like Axia (阿夏), Azu (阿注), Chuwei (处味), Han Chuba (汗处巴), Pregnancy, Genetics, and Walking marriage are forbidden, as they may cause embarrassment and are seen as disrespectful to elders. Additionally, the term Ada (阿达) should not be mentioned in front of other matrilineal relatives, as it implies the sexual relationship between the mother and father, which could embarrass the mother.

This shyness culture serves to prevent incest and maintains stability and harmony in the matrilineal family structure.

Walking Marriage and Father-Child Relationships

While the Mosuo people follow a matrilineal society, they also have unique customs regarding father-child relationships. In Ninglang (宁蒗), Mosuo people refer to their fathers as Abo (阿博), without any sense of shyness or embarrassment, a practice that differs from the Han and Yi cultures in the region. The walking marriage system is still observed, and it remains a distinctive feature of the Mosuo way of life.

Music and Dance

The Mosuo people are known for their musical and dancing talents. One of the most popular dances is the “Jia Cuo Dance” (甲蹉舞), also known as the “Jumping Dance” or “Da Tiao” (打跳), which symbolizes the joy of celebrating good times and beautiful moments. The Mosuo people’s folk music and dance are essential parts of their traditional culture.

In Mosuo music, apart from the funeral chants, the melodies are usually bold and uplifting. Some fixed musical compositions include “A Ha Ba La,” “Ma Da Da,” “Da Mai Diao,” “Ji Ma Diao,” “Sang Zang Diao,” “Cradle Song,” “Praise to the Ge Mu Goddess Song,” and “Jia Cuo Guo” (also known as the “Jumping Song”). The music of the Mosuo people has been influenced by Tibetan and Han Chinese music, particularly Tibetan Buddhist music, which has led to modifications in some traditional Mosuo tunes, though some ancient songs are now lost.

Instruments

The Mosuo people use a variety of instruments, such as the flute, gourd sheng (a type of wind instrument), suona (a Chinese horn), drums, cymbals, balang drum, hand-held copper bells, and mouth harps. The flute is the most widely used instrument, and even young shepherds, as young as seven or eight, often play it. The flute also serves as a companion for the Yongning (永宁) herders, helping to alleviate loneliness during long journeys. The gourd sheng is mainly used by a small group of dancers during the Da Tiao (跳舞) dance, and other instruments are typically used by the Daba (shaman) or lama during religious ceremonies.

Dance

The Mosuo people’s dances are vibrant and varied, full of rich content, and display distinct Mosuo characteristics with a strong ethnic flavor. It is said that the Mosuo people know 72 different dances, highlighting the diversity in their dance forms. The Jia Cuo Dance is one of the most significant, and it is described as the language hidden in the souls of the Mosuo people.

Marriage Customs

Due to geographic differences and varying levels of external contact, marriage customs among the Mosuo people differ by region.

Walking Marriage (Zuo Hun)

The Walking Marriage is the most distinctive Mosuo marriage tradition, especially in the Yongning (永宁) region. In this system, neither men nor women marry in the conventional sense unless there is a specific need, such as the requirement for a woman to continue her family line or a man’s need for labor power. Young men and women typically engage in group activities during the day, and through singing and dancing, they express their feelings toward each other. Once a mutual affection is established, the couple may agree to enter into a Walking Marriage.

During this practice, the man is only allowed to secretly enter the woman’s flower loft (花楼) at night (a custom known as “Mo Ru“), where they sleep together. Before dawn, the man must leave (this is known as “Suo Chu“). This type of marriage is based purely on affection and has nothing to do with economic conditions or external pressures. During the Walking Marriage, the Mosuo people often drink Suli Ma wine (苏里玛酒). The man calls his partner “A Xia” (阿夏), and the woman refers to her partner as “A Zhu” (阿注). The children born from these unions are raised by the woman’s family, with the man not required to provide for them, although both father and child know their familial relationship. Even after separation, the man and woman are free to enter into new Walking Marriages with others.

One-Wife-One-Husband System

Some Mosuo people, particularly in areas influenced by outside cultures, may enter into formal, monogamous marriages, which differ from the traditional Walking Marriage system. These marriages typically involve bridegroom adoption, where a man is adopted into the woman’s family, or in a few cases, the woman marries outside her family. The man is called “Han Chuba” (汗处巴), and the woman is called “Chumi” (处咪).

After marriage, it is not guaranteed that the couple will cohabit. Many Mosuo couples continue to live in their respective matrilineal households, and property remains under the control of each individual’s maternal family. Even when the couple lives together, their matrilineal families continue to provide care and support. For instance, the woman’s family may assist in raising her children, and the man’s family will support his relatives. Divorce among married couples is relatively flexible compared to mainstream society. Most Mosuo marriages are not registered officially, and if the relationship becomes strained or if there is a change in family needs, such as the arrival of a suitable heir or sufficient labor, the couple can mutually dissolve the marriage. The woman’s children would return to her family, and the man’s children would stay with his family.

The Mosuo people living in regions where the Pumi (普米) people, Naxi (纳西) people, Han Chinese (汉族), and Tibetan (藏族) people live, are more influenced by external cultures and tend to practice the One-Wife-One-Husband system. In these communities, A Bo (阿博) is used to refer to fathers, and A Wu (阿乌) is used to refer to uncles, with no connotation of fatherhood.

Matrilineal Clan Society

The Mosuo people, living around Lugu Lake (泸沽湖), still preserve a matriarchal family system, known as the “Kingdom of Women.” This unique cultural phenomenon is one of the most mysterious and fascinating aspects of Mosuo culture, attracting the attention of both scholars and tourists.

In a Mosuo family, the mother holds the highest authority, and women occupy a revered position within the household. All members of the family are descendants of the same mother or grandmother. Men do not marry, and women do not leave their families; women live their entire lives by their mothers’ side. Men visit their female partners only at night and return to their mother’s home in the morning, a practice known as Walking Marriage. During this time, women stay at home, waiting for their male partner’s visit. Family members are related by maternal bloodlines only, and there are no paternal relationships like father-in-law, son-in-law, or uncle-nephew. Property is passed down through the maternal lineage, and the family structure is based entirely on maternal descent. In the Mosuo culture, the mother’s sisters are also referred to as “mothers,” and the biological father is called “uncle” (jiu jiu, 舅舅).

Unique Family Dynamics

The Mosuo family is governed by the principle of “Uncles manage rites, mothers manage wealth.” This refers to the division of power in Mosuo families. Significant social interactions such as large exchanges, celebrations, and rituals are led by the maternal uncles or other influential men, while the management of family assets, household duties, and hospitality is handled by the mother or another respected woman in the family. A popular Mosuo saying goes, “The eagle that flies in the sky is the greatest, and the uncle who walks on the ground is the greatest,” highlighting the central role of uncles in Mosuo society.

Mosuo families value respect, kindness, and harmonious relationships. Children are raised by all the women of the family, and elders are treated with utmost respect. Mosuo children experience a joyous childhood, receiving love and care from multiple mothers, while elders enjoy a peaceful and dignified old age.

Large and Close-Knit Families

The Mosuo family system is generally characterized by large family units that rarely divide. These families often consist of dozens or even hundreds of people, creating a supportive environment for various types of labor. With many hands to work, these large families tend to be prosperous. The Mosuo people believe that dividing the family would be a dishonorable act, as it would disrespect ancestors and promote disputes over property. As a result, even large extended families remain unified and peaceful, with a positive atmosphere filled with warmth and mutual care.

The Last Matrilineal Society in China

In the 21st century, many families around the world, both in China and abroad, are marked by conflict, domestic violence, and family disputes, leading to a lack of security and support for both the elderly and the young. In contrast, the Mosuo people living by Lugu Lake continue to preserve their ancient and beautiful matrilineal family system. In their society, families remain harmonious, and there is a strong sense of social peace. There is no violence or injustice often seen in patriarchal societies, making the Mosuo culture a “final red rose” of matriarchal culture in the East.

Family Structure

In the Mosuo (摩梭) culture, family members are exclusively related through the maternal side, and paternal relatives are not considered part of the household. This unique structure forms the foundation of their matrilineal society.

Kinship Terms

Based on the customs of the Yongning Mosuo (永宁摩梭), the following are the common kinship terms used:

A Si: Great-grandmother/Great-aunt (mother’s side), Great-grandfather (father’s side)

A Yi: Grandmother/Grand-aunt (mother’s side), maternal grandmother

A Pu: Maternal grandfather

A Mi: Mother/Aunt, a general term for female elders such as maternal aunts

A Wu: Uncle, a general term for male elders. When used for fathers, it carries a respectful connotation

A Mi De: Mother’s older sister, also known as A Mi Zhi (阿咪直)

A Mi Jin: Mother’s younger sister, also called A Mi Ji (阿咪吉)

A Wu De: Maternal older brother

A Wu Jin: Maternal younger brother

A Wu Sheng Nong: Uncle-in-law (husband of mother’s sister)

A Da: Father, a formal term for father

A Bo: Dad, a more affectionate term, meaning “kiss on the cheek” in Mosuo

A Mu: Older sister, a general term for an older same-generation female

Gu Mi: Younger sister, a general term for younger same-generation females

Ge Ri: Younger brother, a general term for younger same-generation males

A Mu Han Chu Ba: Brother-in-law (wife’s older brother)

Gu Mi Han Chu Ba: Brother-in-law (wife’s younger brother)

A Mu Chu Mi: Sister-in-law (older brother’s wife)

Ge Ri Chu Mi: Sister-in-law (younger brother’s wife)

Chu Mi: Wife (husband’s term)

Han Chu Ba: Husband (wife’s term)

Mu: Daughter/niece (female term for sister’s daughter), niece (male term for brother’s daughter)

Ruo: Son/nephew (female term for sister’s son), nephew (male term for brother’s son)

Ruo Man, Mu Han Chu Ba: Son-in-law/nephew-in-law (female term for sister’s son-in-law), nephew-in-law (male term for brother’s son-in-law)

Ruo Chu Mi: Daughter-in-law/niece-in-law (female term for sister’s daughter-in-law), niece-in-law (male term for brother’s daughter-in-law)

Re Mi: Niece (male term for sister’s daughter)

Re Wu: Nephew (male term for sister’s son)

Re Mi Han Chu Ba: Nephew-in-law (male term for sister’s son-in-law)

Re Wu Chu Mi: Nephew-in-law (male term for sister’s daughter-in-law)

A Mu Mu: Niece (female term), specifically referring to brother’s daughter

A Mu Ruo: Nephew (female term), specifically referring to brother’s son

Ge Ri Mu: Niece (female term), specifically referring to younger brother’s daughter

Ge Ri Ruo: Nephew (female term), specifically referring to younger brother’s son

A Mu Ge Ri Han Chu Ba: Niece-in-law (female term for brother’s daughter-in-law)

A Mu Ge Ri Chu Mi: Niece-in-law (female term for brother’s daughter-in-law)

Ru Mi: Granddaughter (daughter’s daughter)

Ru Wu: Grandson (daughter’s son)

Ru Mi Han Chu Ba: Granddaughter-in-law

Ru Wu Chu Mi: Grandson-in-law

Walking Marriage Culture

In the Mosuo (摩梭) society, the practice of Walking Marriage is a cornerstone of their family structure. Men and women do not marry in the traditional sense. Women typically remain in their maternal homes, and men visit their female partners only at night. This form of marriage is based purely on affection rather than economic or social factors. After spending the night together, the man leaves before dawn to return to his mother’s home.

This system allows for emotional freedom, as men and women are free to establish relationships outside of traditional marital constraints, without the need for dowries or the responsibilities of raising children together. Children born from Walking Marriages are raised by the mother’s family, and the father plays a minimal role in child-rearing, although he acknowledges his paternity.

The Role of the Uncle

In Mosuo (摩梭) society, the uncle holds significant power, particularly in the upbringing and protection of children born through Walking Marriages. The uncle is seen as the most trusted family member, and his role is central to maintaining the family’s social harmony. The term A Wu (舅父) is used for uncles, and it signifies both respect and authority. Even a biological father must seek the uncle’s permission before taking disciplinary actions against the child, emphasizing the importance of the uncle’s role in family affairs.

Maternal and Paternal Relationships

While the Mosuo (摩梭) people are aware of their biological fathers, these relationships differ significantly from those in patriarchal societies. For instance, during important events such as a child’s coming-of-age ceremony, the father is invited to confirm his paternity, but he does not participate in raising the child. Instead, the relationship between a Mosuo (摩梭) child and their uncle (舅父) is much more intimate and significant than the one with their biological father.

Changes in Mosuo Family Structure

As the Mosuo (摩梭) people come into contact with other cultures, some have started to adopt monogamous practices and traditions from the surrounding societies. This shift began during the Cultural Revolution (文化大革命), when many Mosuo (摩梭) couples were forcibly married. Some Mosuo (摩梭) individuals now choose to embrace a fixed monogamous system, particularly when they marry individuals from other ethnic groups. However, even in these cases, the respect for the maternal family and the term A Mi (阿咪) is still used to refer to the mother-in-law, maintaining the strong matrilineal influence.