Naxi Ethnic Minority

The Naxi (纳西族) is one of the 56 ethnic groups in China and is unique to the Yunnan Province. The majority of the Naxi people reside in Lijiang (丽江) in the northwest of Yunnan, with smaller populations in other counties of Yunnan, as well as in Sichuan’s Yanyuan (盐源), Yanbian (盐边), Muli (木里), and some in Tibet’s Mangkang (芒康) County.

Language and Ethnic Identity

The Naxi speak their own language, Naxi (纳西语), which belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, specifically the Tibeto-Burman subgroup. The Naxi have a rich cultural heritage in art, including poetry, painting, sculpture, and music, which are widely admired both domestically and internationally. The Naxi people have deep cultural ties with the Han Chinese, and their traditions have been influenced by Han culture over the centuries.

Population and Distribution

As of the 2021 census, the total population of the Naxi people is approximately 323,767. They are primarily concentrated in Lijiang, Yulong Naxi Autonomous County, Gucheng District, Weixi Lisu Autonomous County, and Yongsheng County in Yunnan, as well as in areas of Sichuan and Tibet.

Ethnic Distribution:

Yunnan Province:

• Lijiang: A major hub for the Naxi people

• Yulong Naxi Autonomous County: The core area for Naxi culture

• Weixi Lisu Autonomous County: A region with Naxi villages

• Yongsheng County: Home to some Naxi settlements

Sichuan Province:

• Muli Tibetan Autonomous County

• Yanyuan County

Tibet:

• Mangkang County (芒康)

Naxi Identity and Self-Identification

The Naxi people are known to have several self-designations, depending on their geographical location. Those in areas like Lijiang and Yulong Naxi Autonomous County usually refer to themselves as “Naxi” (纳西), while those from Ninglang County (宁蒗县) and areas near Lugu Lake (泸沽湖) may refer to themselves as “Na” (纳) or “Nar” (纳日). There are also regional names such as Nahan (纳罕), Nahang (纳恒), and Marima Sha (玛丽玛沙) used by some communities.

Historically, during the Han Dynasty, the Naxi were referred to by various names in ancient texts, including “Mashi” (摩沙) or “Mosuo” (摩梭). These names were widely used until the 1950s when the term “Naxi” was officially established by the Chinese government, based on the wishes of the Naxi people themselves.

Religion and Beliefs

The Naxi practice a variety of religions, with Dongba religion (东巴教) being the most prominent. This ancient religion is closely tied to their traditions, and the Dongba script is a unique form of writing used to preserve their religious texts and cultural heritage.

Cultural Influence and Artistic Achievements

The Naxi people are renowned for their contributions to art, including their traditional music and dance. One of the most famous aspects of Naxi culture is the Dongba art, which includes painting, music, and ceremonial rituals. The Naxi are also known for their distinct Naxi scripts and their sophisticated cultural practices, which have been passed down for generations.

History

Origins of the Naxi Ethnic Group

The origins of the Naxi (纳西族) are believed to trace back to ancient times, with scholars suggesting that the Naxi people originated from the ancient Qiang people who lived in the region of the Yellow River (黄河) and Huanghe (湟河). Over time, they migrated south to the upper reaches of the Min River (岷江), then southwest to the Yalong River (雅砻江) basin, and further westward to the upper reaches of the Jinsha River (金沙江). Early texts, such as the Book of the Later Han (后汉书), describe the ancient Qiang people who are thought to be the ancestors of the Naxi. According to these records, the Qiang people’s descendants spread and formed different tribes, some of which became the Naxi.

Archaeological Evidence

Ongoing archaeological discoveries continue to shed light on the Naxi people’s history. Notable finds include ancient human fossils in the Mujia Bridge (木家桥) area southeast of Lijiang (丽江), which date back to approximately 100,000 years ago. This site is considered the home of ancient humans known as the “Lijiang Man.” Further discoveries in Yongning, Yanyuan, and Lugu Lake (泸沽湖) have revealed Neolithic sites, pottery, and tools that highlight the early settlement of the Naxi people.

In Sichuan Province, archaeological findings, including stone coffin burial cultures in Kangding, Yajiang, Xinlong, and Batang, as well as in Tibet’s Gongjue (贡觉) and Mangkang (芒康) counties, further demonstrate the historical presence of the Naxi in these regions.

Qin, Han, Tang, and Song Dynasties

During the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE), the ancestors of the Naxi were spread across the Southwest of Sichuan and the Northwest of Yunnan. In the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Naxi ancestors were involved in political conflicts over salt, iron, and lacquer in regions such as Dingze (定笮), and they established ties with the Eastern Han Dynasty.

The Tang Dynasty (618–907) saw the Naxi tribes inhabiting regions from Sichuan’s Xichuan to Dali’s Binchuan, extending into areas near the Lancang River (澜沧江) and Weixi (维西). By the 6th century, one group of the Naxi moved southward through the Wuliang River in Muli, settling in the Shamba area near Shangri-La.

The Yuan Dynasty and Ming Dynasty

In 1253, during the reign of Kublai Khan, the Mongol Empire invaded and began to consolidate power in the Naxi areas, eventually forming the early system of Tusi (土司) chiefs who governed local tribes. In 1274, the Mongol rulers established the “Lijiang Military Governor’s Office,” which marked the beginning of the administrative recognition of Lijiang.

By the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the Naxi were integrated into the Mongol-established system, and leaders like Mu De of the Mu Clan held hereditary governance over Lijiang. Mu De promoted the introduction of advanced agricultural practices, and Lijiang flourished as a trade center. The Naxi people’s military prowess was also recognized, contributing to the Ming Dynasty’s military campaigns.

The Qing Dynasty

In 1723, the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) instituted the “Gaotu Gui Liu” (改土归流) policy, which replaced the Tusi system with appointed officials who oversaw governance. The Qing administration introduced significant social and cultural reforms, such as banning cremation and imposing Confucian norms. This period saw increasing tension between traditional Naxi customs and the Qing government’s centralized policies.

During the Second Opium War in the mid-1800s, the Naxi were involved in the Hui Muslim Rebellion (回民起义), with significant bloodshed occurring in Lijiang. These events marked a turbulent period in Naxi history, as the region faced political unrest.

The Republican Era and Modern History

In the Republic of China (1912–1949), the Naxi people played a significant role in various political movements. They were actively involved in the Anti-Yuan campaign (反袁护国战争) and later participated in the Chinese Civil War (1945–1949). In the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), Naxi soldiers fought in major battles such as Tai’erzhuang and Zhongtiao Mountain.

During the People’s Republic of China era, significant advancements were made for the Naxi people, such as the establishment of the Lijiang Naxi Autonomous County in 1961 and the recognition of Lijiang Old Town as a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site in 1997.

Modern-Day

The Naxi people’s culture and traditions continue to thrive, with Lijiang being a key cultural and tourist hub. The Dongba culture (东巴文化), unique to the Naxi people, is one of the most celebrated cultural aspects, particularly for its ancient script, art, music, and rituals. Additionally, the Three Parallel Rivers (三江并流) region, a UNESCO World Natural Heritage site, highlights the cultural and ecological importance of the Naxi people’s homeland.

Today, the Naxi people maintain their distinct cultural identity while adapting to the changing socio-economic landscape of modern China. The Dongba script remains a crucial symbol of their heritage, having been included in the Memory of the World Register by UNESCO.

Population

Total Population

According to the 2000 population census, between November 1, 1999, and October 31, 2000, the Naxi (纳西族) population in China saw 4,470 births, with a total fertility rate of 1.50 and a birth sex ratio of 104.11 males for every 100 females. During the same period, 2,376 deaths were recorded, of which 1,353 were males and 1,023 were females, yielding a crude death rate of 7.72‰. The infant mortality rate stood at 54.90‰, and the life expectancy was 67.60 years. Compared to the 1990 census, the Naxi population increased by 31,100, growing at an annual average rate of 1.03%. The urban population was 68,400, representing 22.15% of the total, while 77.85% of the population lived in rural areas. The urbanization rate had increased by 7.85 percentage points from 1990.

As per the China Statistical Yearbook 2021, the population of the Naxi in China stands at 323,767 people.

Distribution

The Naxi people predominantly reside in Yunnan Province (云南省), which is home to 95.5% of the total Naxi population. The Lijiang Naxi Autonomous County (丽江纳西族自治县), now including Lijiang City (丽江市) and Yulong County (玉龙县), is the central hub, with 201,066 people, accounting for 58% of the population in the county and 68.5% of the total Naxi population in China.

Apart from Yunnan, there are Naxi communities in Sichuan Province (四川省) and Tibet Autonomous Region (西藏自治区), with Sichuan hosting 8,725 individuals (2.8% of the total Naxi population) and Tibet 1,223 individuals (0.4%). The remaining 28 provinces of China host 4,065 Naxi people, which represents 1.3% of the total population.

Gender Composition

According to the 2000 census, the Naxi population consisted of 155,000 males and 153,800 females, resulting in a sex ratio of 100.87 males for every 100 females.

Age Composition

As of the 2000 census, the age distribution of the Naxi population was as follows:

Children (0-14 years): 24.77%

Working-age population (15-64 years): 68.71%

Elderly (65 years and older): 6.52%

Compared to the 1990 census, the proportion of children decreased by 3.7 percentage points, while the working-age population and elderly populations increased by 2.7 and 1.0 percentage points, respectively.

Education

The 2000 census also reported on the educational status of the Naxi population. Of the population aged 15 and above (233,000 people):

35,300 were illiterate, with an illiteracy rate of 15.21%. The illiteracy rate for male adults was 7.97%, while for females it was 22.48%.

Compared to the 1990 census, the illiterate population decreased by 21,100, and the illiteracy rate fell by 13.21%.

For the population aged 6 and above (281,200 people):

85.90% had received education beyond primary school.

41.89% had received education beyond junior high school.

14.60% had received education at the high school or vocational school level.

3.61% had received tertiary or university education.

The average years of education was 6.99 years, which is an increase of 1.34 years from 10 years ago.

Residential Areas

The Naxi people are concentrated in several key areas across Yunnan, Sichuan, and Tibet. These regions include:

Autonomous Regions

Yulong Naxi Autonomous County (玉龙纳西族自治县), Lijiang City, Yunnan Province

Naxi Villages in Ethnic Townships

Sanba Naxi Ethnic Township (三坝纳西族乡), Shangri-La County, Dêqên Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan Province

Daan Yi and Naxi Ethnic Township (大安彝族纳西族乡), Yongsheng County, Lijiang, Yunnan Province

Oya Naxi Ethnic Township (俄亚纳西族乡), Muli Tibetan Autonomous County, Sichuan Province

Xiaoyanjing Naxi Ethnic Township (下盐井纳西族乡), Mangkang County, Chamdo Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region

Economy

Early Economic Development

During the Han (汉) and Jin (晋) periods, the region around the Jinsha River (金沙江) and Yalong River (雅砻江) in the Dingze area (定笮) was known for its abundant production of salt, iron, and lacquer.

Tang Dynasty

In the Tang Dynasty, the Naxi economy was driven by pastoralism, particularly in the Tieqiao (铁桥) region, where large-scale trade of cattle and sheep took place. Agricultural development also progressed during this time, and metallurgy reached a high level. The Naxi were well-known for producing weapons such as “Duo Xiao” (铎销), which earned a reputation across the six regions. The Nan Zhao (南诏) inscription referred to them as “precious items.”

Ming Dynasty

Under the enlightened policies of the Mu Family (木氏) during the Ming Dynasty, the Naxi region in Lijiang (丽江) flourished, with rapid development in various sectors. Mining, particularly in silver, copper, gold, iron, and salt, became highly profitable. The Mu Family became one of the wealthiest landholding families in Yunnan Province, with records from the Ming History (“Ming Shi”) stating: “The mineral production is unique, and its wealth surpasses all other regions.”

Qing Dynasty

During the Qing Dynasty, Lijiang implemented the “reform of land and flow” policy, which established a feudal landlord economy. Agriculture, handicrafts, and trade saw rapid development during this time.

Post-Qing Era

Following the decline of the Qing Dynasty and into the early Republic of China period, with the rise of the landlord economy, capitalist industry and commerce began to emerge in Lijiang and the Naxi regions.

Economic Significance during the War

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, external trade was interrupted, and Japan blocked the China-Burma (中缅) route. However, trade between China and India thrived, and Lijiang became a key trade hub for the exchange of goods between India, Tibet, and inland China. At that time, Naxi commercial capitalists in Lijiang amassed large fortunes, and the Naxi region’s craft industries, particularly in Dayan Town (大研镇), which is now part of Lijiang Old Town, developed significantly. Local handicrafts included copper, iron, carpentry, leatherwork, textiles, dyeing, and brickwork.

Pre-1949 Economy

Before 1949, over 80% of the population of Lijiang Old Town depended on handicrafts and trade for their livelihoods. In the 1940s, there were more than 2,500 independent handicraft workers.

Agricultural Production

The Naxi regions, particularly the plains and river valleys, are major grain-producing areas. The primary crops grown include wheat, rice, corn, rapeseed, and barley. Legumes such as fava beans, soybeans, peas, chickpeas, and white kidney beans are common, while highland crops include buckwheat, oats, barley, and potatoes. River valley areas produce peanuts, sugarcane, and cotton, while economic crops such as catalpa trees, lacquer trees, walnuts, chestnuts, mulberry trees, Sichuan pepper, and bamboo thrive. Tobacco farming has also expanded significantly.

Livestock Farming

Livestock farming is a key pillar of the rural economy in Naxi areas, with households commonly raising cattle, horses, mules, pigs, and sheep. In the mountainous regions, livestock farming plays a significant role, with each household often owning a flock of sheep. Mules and horses are primarily traded at the “July Mule Market” (七月骡马会), with Lijiang horses (丽江马) famous for their small size, strength, and ability to navigate treacherous mountain paths. These horses are one of Yunnan’s Three Treasures. Many Naxi men were involved in the mule train business, which served as a primary means of transportation for trade between different ethnic groups.

Culture

Social Structure

The Naxi (纳西) ethnic group has a deeply rooted clan organization. A family is typically formed by several households who share a common ancestor. In Lijiang (丽江), Weixi (维西), and Zhongdian (中甸), regions where the Naxi practice monogamy, families are organized according to paternal lineage. Naxi family structures use terms such as “Dingji” (丁吉), “Dingzhi” (丁支), “Dinghua” (丁化), and “Chongwo” (崇窝). The Naxi view paternal relatives as the “bones” and maternal relatives as the “flesh.” The term “Chongwo” refers to a family organization descended from a male ancestor and formed by related members of the paternal lineage.

Historically, Lijiang‘s (丽江) Naxi people had four main clans: “Mei” (梅), “He” (禾), “Si” (肆), and “You” (尤). The “Mei” and “He” clans were predominantly found in the eastern dialect region, while “Si” and “You” were common in the western dialect region. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, these clan structures disappeared in Lijiang (丽江), Weixi (维西), and other areas.

During the Ming Dynasty (明朝), the Mu Family (木氏), who served as hereditary rulers and military leaders, implemented a primogeniture system. The Mu clan owned vast amounts of land and had a large number of estates. The population was divided into two groups: commoners and serfs. Commoners had personal freedom but were required to serve in labor and military duties, while serfs worked directly on the estates.

Social Hierarchy in Naxi Society

Before 1949, Yongning Naxi (永宁纳人) society had a hierarchical system consisting of three levels: the “Sipei” (司沛) aristocracy, the “Zeka” (责卡) commoners, and the “E” (俄) servants or slaves.

The Sipei group, split from the Mu Family‘s (木氏) nobility, held land, pastures, and herds and had hereditary rights over these resources. They were granted high-ranking positions in the Mu Family‘s administration. The Sipei had many privileges, including the right to own land, appoint officials, and exempt themselves from certain duties. The wealthiest of the Sipei could serve as local officials, while ordinary Sipei enjoyed benefits like housing, fine clothing, and exemption from labor service.

The Zeka (责卡) were feudal peasants who worked the land and owed labor service or tribute to their feudal lords. There were two types of Zeka: “internal” (内责卡), who were directly controlled by the Mu Family (木氏), and “external” (外责卡), who paid tribute and worked under other leaders. The Zeka were further subdivided into “black” (黑), “flower” (花), and “white” (白) categories based on the amount of land they worked.

The E (俄) level consisted of family slaves, criminals, outsiders, and Zeka (责卡) who had fallen in status. The E were primarily servants for the Sipei and had no personal rights. However, they could occasionally buy their freedom, though their children would still inherit their servitude.

Traditional Family Structures

The Naxi (纳西) have historically had a variety of marriage systems, which has resulted in diverse family structures. There were traditionally three types of family structures: patriarchal, matriarchal, and dual lineage families, all of which coexisted in Naxi society.

Patriarchal families: Common in Lijiang (丽江), these families are led by the father, who holds significant authority in both the household and the community. Fathers manage the family’s economic activities, such as land sales, legal matters, and community meetings. They also have the final say in matters such as marriages, funerals, and building homes. The children inherit the father’s surname, and property is passed down from father to son under a patriarchal inheritance system.

Matriarchal families: Predominantly found in the Lugu Lake (泸沽湖) region, Naxi families in this system are matrilineal, with inheritance passing through the mother. The family is organized around the maternal lineage, with the eldest woman holding the position of head of the family. In these families, women manage the household, distribute resources, and host religious ceremonies. Men in these families are referred to as uncles, brothers, or maternal nephews, depending on their role.

Dual lineage families: A blend of both systems, where families integrate both paternal and maternal ancestry into their household structure, providing a unique blend of patriarchal and matrilineal influences. This family structure is typically transitional, evolving from matriarchal to patriarchal, but may revert if the family returns to matrilineal practices.

Changes in Family Organization

In contemporary society, particularly due to the development of communities and migration, the Chongwo (崇窝) social organization has become more fragmented and dispersed. Previously, families that were part of the same Chongwo would reside in the same village, but now, as populations grow and spread out, it is rare to see all descendants of a Chongwo living together in one location. As a result, the Chongwo community has lost much of its previous cohesion, and large gatherings of the entire group are rare.

Today, the Dingzhi (丁支), derived from the Chongwo (崇窝), is the closest-knit family group. These families share common ancestors and celebrate family rituals, such as ancestor worship, and often have communal land and forests. Families within a Dingzhi (丁支) are typically related by three to ten generations, and they honor their shared ancestor. Many of these families also have common burial grounds, where they perform ancestor worship on the same day.

Naxi Family Systems

In the Naxi (纳西) communities of Sichuan (四川), many ancient family customs persist. These include polyandry (one woman married to multiple men), which still exists in some remote villages, where multiple brothers may share one wife. This custom is part of the Naxi’s long-standing matriarchal traditions.

Patriarchal families: In Lijiang (丽江), fathers control the family’s wealth and affairs. The father has the final authority on decisions relating to marriages, property, and household management, while the mother typically only acts as a caretaker in the father’s absence.

Matriarchal families: As seen in the Lugu Lake (泸沽湖) region, matriarchal families are still practiced, where inheritance and authority pass down through the maternal line. The eldest woman is the family head, overseeing household management, rituals, and distribution of property.

Dual lineage families: A mixture of both systems, where families integrate both paternal and maternal ancestry into their household structure, providing a unique blend of patriarchal and matrilineal influences. This family structure is typically transitional, evolving from matriarchal to patriarchal, but may revert if the family returns to matrilineal practices.

Religion

The Naxi (纳西) ethnic group practices a variety of religious beliefs. They adhere to their indigenous religion, Dongbaism (东巴教), as well as Tibetan Buddhism, Han Buddhism, and Daoism, with Dongbaism being the most widely followed.

Dongbaism

Dongbaism has a significant impact on the Naxi people’s social life, ethnic spirit, and cultural customs. It developed from the original beliefs of the Naxi during their clan and tribal alliance period. Over time, it absorbed elements from Tibetan Bon (the indigenous religion of Tibet), Tibetan Buddhism, and other influences, creating a unique religious form. Dongbaism features its own system of rituals, a vast pantheon of gods and spirits, and corresponding scriptures. Key characteristics of Dongbaism include animism, nature worship, ancestor worship, divination, and the core belief that “nature and humans are brothers.”

Tibetan Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhism began to spread to the Naxi regions from Tibet via western Sichuan during the late Yuan Dynasty (元朝). After the early Qing Dynasty (清朝), Tibetan Buddhism saw rapid growth in the Lijiang (丽江) and Weixi (维西) Naxi areas. Between the Kangxi (康熙) and Daoguang (道光) eras, over 180 years, 13 major monasteries of the Karma Kagyu (噶玛噶举) school (White Sect) were established, gaining substantial religious and economic influence.

Han Buddhism

During the Qing Dynasty, Han Buddhism also saw significant growth in the Lijiang (丽江) region, where over 60 temples were built in both urban and rural areas.

Daoism

Daoism (道教) was introduced to Lijiang (丽江) during the Ming Dynasty (明朝) when the Mu Family (木氏) rulers invited Daoist priests from central China to spread the faith. After the Qing Dynasty’s Yongzheng period (1723), Daoism experienced further development in Lijiang.

Clothing

Traditional Clothing for Men

The Naxi (纳西) men in the Lijiang (丽江) area wear clothing similar to that of the local Han Chinese, but during the cold winter months, they add sheepskin cloaks. In Zhongdian (中甸), men wear long robes with large collars and over-the-knee loose trousers, secured with a sheepskin pouch and leg bindings. In regions such as Ninglang (宁蒗), Yongning (永宁), Yanyuan (盐源), and Muli (木里), the men wear short shirts with long pants. In Ninglang, men also wear bracelets, while older men wear long linen shirts with no collars, accompanied by a blue cloth waistcoat.

In recent decades, more Naxi men have taken to wearing traditional Tibetan (藏族) clothing.

Traditional Clothing for Women

The Naxi (纳西) women’s clothing varies depending on the region. In Lijiang (丽江), Naxi women wear long, knee-length coats with wide waists and large sleeves, complemented by a waistcoat, pleated waistband, and long pants. They also wear sheepskin cloaks. In Ninglang (宁蒗), Naxi women wear short shirts with long, pleated skirts that reach the ground. They also wear sheepskin and wrap their heads in blue cloth, along with gold, silver, jade, and stone jewelry, including earrings and bracelets. These women also like to tie “sheepskin belts” or “waistbands,” which are made from cotton cloth, about 4.5 feet long and 2 inches wide. The waistband is embroidered with patterns such as potted chrysanthemums and two dragons playing with pearls, and is worn only on holidays.

In Yongning (永宁), Naxi women wear large braided wigs made from yak tail hair, which are then wrapped with blue and black silk threads, hanging down to the waist.

Traditional Holiday Attire

During holidays, Naxi women wear their traditional ethnic clothing, including the Qixing Pishou (七星披肩), or “Seven-Star Cloak,” which is brightly colored and beautiful. Made from a whole piece of black sheepskin, the cloak features a 6 cm wide woolen edge and embroidered sun and moon patterns with seven stars on the shoulders. The cloak symbolizes the hard work of Naxi women, who carry out their labor while metaphorically “wearing the stars and the moon.”

This cloak is not only decorative but also practical. Naxi women typically carry loads on their backs instead of on their shoulders, so the cloak can double as a shoulder pad. It serves a dual purpose, offering both symbolic meaning and practical use in daily life.

Language and Script

Naxi Language

The Naxi (纳西) language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, specifically the Tibeto-Burman branch. Some scholars argue that the Naxi language lies at the intersection of the Qiangic and Yi branches, sharing similarities with both. The Naxi language is divided into two main dialects: the Western Dialect, represented by areas such as Lijiang (丽江), Shangri-La (香格里拉), Weixi (维西), and Yongsheng (永胜), and the Eastern Dialect, represented by areas such as Ninglang (宁蒗), Yanyuan (盐源), Muli (木里), and Yanbian (盐边).

Although the two dialects share similar phonology and grammar, with about 70% of their vocabulary in common, communication between speakers of the two dialects can be difficult. In Eryuan (洱源), Naxi families continue to use their native language internally, but due to prolonged cohabitation with local Bai (白) and Han (汉) ethnic groups, Mandarin Chinese and Bai serve as the common languages of communication.

Naxi Script

The Naxi people use two distinct scripts, both employed by their priests, known as Dongba (东巴), for religious texts. One of these scripts is Dongba pictographs, known as Ser Jel Lv Jel (斯究鲁究), meaning “marks on wood and stone” (also translated as “Wood and Stone Records”). This script is a form of ancient pictographic writing and is considered a rare and primitive form of pictorial language, representing an intermediate stage between ideographic and pictorial writing systems. Most of the Dongba texts are written using this pictographic script.

The second script is called Gebba (格巴), a syllabic script used to record words and maintain a strict correspondence between characters and their meanings. Dongba pictographs are sometimes used in a variant form, with characters that sound the same but are written differently.

Naxi Script Standardization

After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the government selected the Western Dialect as the standard basis for the written language in 1956, using the local dialect of Dayan Town (大研镇) in Lijiang (丽江) as the standard pronunciation. In 1957, a Latin alphabet-based system for the Naxi script was proposed and approved at a Yunnan Ethnic Minority Linguistics Conference held in Kunming (昆明). This proposal was later put into trial implementation.

In 1981, relevant departments revised the initial proposal, and the standardized Naxi Pinyin Script was introduced in bilingual education programs in schools.

Literature

Dongba Scripture

The Dongba scriptures are not only an encyclopedia of the ancient Naxi people’s social life but also a treasury of Naxi classical literature. They contain ancient Naxi myths, epics, legends, stories, and proverbs, all recorded in Dongba pictographs by Dongba priests.

Dongba Literature

Dongba literature is primarily oral and is recited during various religious ceremonies, which often combine religious and folk activities. It is typically written in verse form, with odd-numbered syllables, using 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13-syllable lines in varying sequences. The most common form is a mix of 5 and 7-syllable verses, though some later works are written entirely in 5-syllable lines.

All Dongba scriptures are sung or chanted by the Dongba priests to specific musical tunes, which are crucial to the performance of these religious texts. Dongba literature includes myths about nature, the flood, ancestral heroes, war epics, love poems, ghost legends, and many stories and proverbs. Representative works include the epic creation myth “Genesis,” the “Black and White War,” “The Battle of Has,” “Killing the Mighty Ghost,” “The Theft of Fire by Xuwa,” and “Ancient Songs for the Heaven Sacrifice.” These works reflect the Naxi spirit of resilience, bravery, strong identity, and unity.

Works such as “Luban Lurou” and “Chubu Youbu” feature romantic and tragic tales of Naxi youth who value emotional connections and loyalty, even sacrificing their lives for love.

Naxi Folk Songs

Among the most representative forms of Naxi folk music is the “Dajia” (大调) or “Grand Tune.” This term refers to long narrative songs that are widely spread in the community and are typically sung in a fixed melody for each type of story. Famous examples include “Youbei” (Song of Martyrdom), “Liege Song,” “Chasing Horses,” “Zheng Song” (Song of the Zither), “Fish and Water Meeting,” “Bees and Flowers Meeting,” and “Snow and Sun Meeting.”

In addition to these traditional Naxi literary forms, from the Ming Dynasty (明朝) onwards, several Naxi writers have written extensively in Chinese. The Mu Family (木氏) nobility, including figures like Mu Gong and Mu Zeng, produced a large body of poetry and literature that was preserved and collected in works such as the “Yunnan Song Collection” and the “Complete Works of Ancient and Modern Books”. Mu Zeng’s work, “Yunqi Danmo”, was included in the “Siku Quanshu”, a complete library of Chinese classics compiled in the Qing Dynasty.

Art

Architecture

The Naxi (纳西) people have a rich architectural tradition that began in the Ming Dynasty (明代), with the construction of grand and impressive houses in Lijiang (丽江), though most of these were for the homes of local chieftains and monasteries. From the Qing Dynasty (清朝) onward, with increasing cultural exchanges and the development of the Naxi society, architectural techniques from the Han, Bai, Tibetan, and other ethnic groups were gradually adopted. This led to the development of two main architectural styles: “San Fang Yi Zhaobi” (三坊一照壁) and “Si He Wu Tianjing” (四合五天井).

These styles are typically characterized by wooden or brick-walled houses with tiled roofs. In the towns of Lijiang and the surrounding rural areas, especially in the Basin (坝区) and River Valley (河谷区), these house designs became widespread. Key features include courtyards, rivers at the back of the house, and buildings spanning across rivers, creating a distinctive architectural landscape. In the Ancient Town of Lijiang, houses often have front courtyards with stone floors in symbolic patterns like “Four Bats Celebrate Longevity” and “Kirin Watching the Moon,” reflecting a blend of Naxi and multi-ethnic architectural art.

The Old Town of Lijiang, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, epitomizes this rich architectural heritage. Located at an altitude of 2,400 meters at the foot of Yulong Snow Mountain (玉龙雪山), the town covers an area of 3.8 square kilometers. The central area of the town, Sifang Street (四方街), is where the town’s four main roads intersect and radiate out in a network. One of the unique features of the town is that “the town relies on water, and the water follows the town.” Black Dragon Pool (黑龙潭), located in the northern part of the city, is the main water source, with water flowing in an intricate system of channels through the town, crossing bridges and running through courtyards.

The ancient town has 354 bridges, both stone and wooden, earning it the title of having the densest bridge network in China. All of the streets and alleys are paved with red cornerstone rocks (民间称为五花石), ensuring that they are dust-free in dry weather and do not accumulate water when it rains.

Painting and Murals

Dongba painting (东巴绘画) can be classified into four main styles: wooden plaque paintings, bamboo pen paintings, paper plaque paintings, and scroll paintings.

Wooden plaque paintings are divided into sharp-tipped and flat-tipped types. The sharp-tipped plaques often depict gods and benevolent natural spirits called “Shu” (署), with colors, while the flat-tipped plaques represent ghosts and demons without color. These wooden plaques are a direct continuation of ancient Qiang (羌) traditions.

Bamboo pen paintings are created using sharp-tipped bamboo pens that are used for writing Dongba scriptures. These include cover designs, title pages, illustrations, and other decorative elements. These paintings can be both in sketch style and in color.

Paper plaque paintings are created on thick paper, which is layered together to form a hard plaque. These are used in divination, depictions of natural gods, and other Dongba religious ceremonies.

Scroll paintings are painted on cloth and often feature deities and spirits. These scrolls are hung in the temporary altars used during Dongba rituals. A famous example of this style is the “Path to the Gods” painting, which spans 15 to 20 meters and features nearly 400 human, god, demon, and beast figures. This scroll is used during funerary and soul-transcendence ceremonies.

The Dongba painting and sculpture styles are characterized by bold, direct lines, a naturalistic and primitive aesthetic. Sculptures include face models, clay sculptures, and wood carvings, all of which are heavily integrated into the religious practices of the Naxi people.

Lijiang Baisha Murals

The famous Baisha Murals (白沙壁画) of Lijiang are a product of the Ming Dynasty (明代) and reflect the open society of the Naxi during that period. One of the key features of these murals is their blending of various religious traditions and schools of thought, as well as the fusion of multiple ethnic painting techniques. This fusion is visible in the diverse themes portrayed in the murals, including Tibetan Buddhism, Daoism, and Chinese folk beliefs.

These murals are unique in that they showcase an early, inclusive, and syncretic religious environment within the Naxi society, with a combination of different gods, rituals, and cultures. The Baisha murals are a critical part of Lijiang’s cultural heritage and highlight the artistic openness and historical fusion within the Naxi people.

Music and Dance

Dance

The Naxi (纳西) people are widely known for their musical talents and dancing skills. Historical records from the Tang Dynasty (唐代) and Yuan Dynasty (元代) mention that “both men and women wear sheepskin and enjoy drinking, singing, and dancing,” and “men and women move in circles, each holding hands, dancing and singing for joy.”

Lijiang Ancient Music

Lijiang Ancient Music (丽江古乐) is a unique blend of Naxi and Han culture. It consists of Baisha Fine Music (白沙细乐) and Lijiang Cave Music (丽江洞经音乐), with the latter originating from Daoist rituals. Baisha Fine Music is one of China’s few remaining large-scale classical orchestral works and has been preserved through centuries of cultural exchanges.

Lijiang Cave Music, introduced from central China during the Ming (明) and Qing (清) Dynasties, is a Daoist musical form that originated from Zitong County in Sichuan (四川). It is distinct from other Daoist music systems across China and is considered a rare and precious art form.

Dongba Dance

Many traditional classical dances of the Naxi are preserved within Dongba teachings. The Dongba scriptures (东巴经) feature a dance manual called “Cuomu” (蹉姆), which records various ancient Naxi dances performed during Dongba rituals. This is one of the few dance manuals written in ancient minority scripts in China, and it is among the earliest written dance scores in the world.

Naxi Folk Songs and Dances

Naxi folk dances and songs are represented by pieces such as “Remi Cuo” (热美磋), “Weimo Da” (喂默达), and “Ali Li” (阿丽哩). Among them, “Remi Cuo”, also known as “Rehe Cuo” or “Worehe,” is an incredibly rare example of well-preserved ancient folk songs and dances. These performances often involve singing and dancing simultaneously, with one person leading and the rest following in easy steps.

The Naxi also perform instrumental dances, such as the ancient “Baisha Fine Music” dances, which are accompanied by music but without singing. These dances are referred to as “Dajiao” (打跳), performed in religious and cultural ceremonies.

Performance Dances

A key performance dance is the Qilin Dance (麒麟舞), which was introduced to Lijiang (丽江) during the Ming (明) and Qing (清) Dynasties. This dance combines music, dance, drama, painting, and choreography, originating from Daoist art. Leiba Cuo (勒巴磋) is another significant dance, with 12 sets of over 40 different movements. It is a large-scale ritual dance with religious and ceremonial elements, performed without singing and accompanied only by the dance.

Luba Dance (勒巴舞) is another well-known ritual dance in the Lijiang (丽江) region, specifically in the Tacheng (塔城) area. It involves multiple dance styles that are religious in nature and celebrated with diverse movements and gestures.

Religious Dance

The Dongba Dance (东巴舞) is the primary religious dance performed by the Naxi people during ceremonies such as god welcoming, exorcising demons, sacrificial rites, weddings, and soul transcendence rituals. The Dongba dance has over 300 variations, and a famous dance tutorial called “Cuomu” (蹉姆) is documented in the Dongba scriptures. The Dongba dance is an integral part of Dongba religious practices and is highly significant within the Naxi cultural heritage.

Musical Instruments

The Naxi people have a wide range of traditional musical instruments:

Naxi Large Drum (纳西大鼓)

Naxi Erhuang (纳西二簧)

Naxi Huqin (龙头胡琴)

Naxi Jizi (纳西击子)

Naxi Pipa (纳西琵琶)

Bo Po (芦管), a type of bamboo pipe

Tianqin (天琴), a stringed instrument

These instruments play a central role in Naxi music and dance performances, contributing to the rich cultural tapestry of the Naxi people.

Traditional Festivals

Tian God Worship and Dongba Culture

One of the largest and most significant rituals in Naxi (纳西) culture is the Tian God worship, which is also considered the biggest traditional festival among the Naxi people, usually held during the first month of the lunar year.

The New Year (春节), known as “Youbenji Zheng” (由本吉正) in Naxi, or “Kushi” (库市), marks the celebration of the beginning of the year. During this period, the Naxi people hold a series of traditional activities to bid farewell to the old and welcome the new year.

The Stick Festival

The Stick Festival (棒棒会) takes place on the 15th day of the lunar New Year. This marks the end of the Spring Festival and the beginning of spring plowing.

The Sanduo Festival

The Sanduo Festival (三朵节) is a celebration of the Naxi people’s faith in their guardian deity, Sanduo (三朵), also known as “Apu Sanduo” (阿普三朵), which means “Grandfather Sanduo.” According to legend, Sanduo is a warrior god who protects the people. On February 8 and the 8th day of the lunar August, the people gather to offer incense and pray at Sanduo Pavilion (三朵阁), asking for protection. Since 1987, the Sanduo Festival has been officially recognized as a Naxi ethnic holiday.

The Torch Festival

The Torch Festival (火把节), celebrated from the 24th to the 26th day of the lunar June, originally started as a way to use fire to resist natural disasters. In Naxi (纳西), the festival is known as “Chuanmei Sheng’en” (川美生恩).

The Mule Race Festival

The Mule Race Festival (七月骡马会) takes place in the latter part of the lunar July in Lijiang (丽江), lasting one to two weeks. This festival features the racing of mules, horses, and other livestock.

The “Shāo Bāo” Festival

The “Shāo Bāo” Festival (烧包节), also known as the “Ghost Festival” (中元节), takes place from the 1st to the 14th day of the lunar July. It is celebrated in Lijiang‘s ancient town, where the Naxi people hold rituals for the deceased and pay respects to ancestors.

In addition to these, the Naxi people have many other local customs and traditions, such as the Baishu Tai Festival (白水台会) in Shangri-La (香格里拉) and the 祭干木女神山 (Jiganmu Goddess Mountain) in Yongning (永宁).

Housing Style

Traditional Naxi Architecture

The Naxi traditional homes are mainly built with a combination of wood and earth materials. The most common architectural styles are:

Three Rooms and One Screen Wall (三坊一照壁)

Four Courtyards and Five Skylights (四合五天井)

Front and Back Courtyards (前后院)

One Entrance and Two Courtyards (一进两院)

Among these, Three Rooms and One Screen Wall is the most basic and common style in Lijiang (丽江) Naxi homes.

Marriage Customs

Traditional Marriage Rituals

In Naxi communities, marriage traditionally follows a series of steps: matchmaking, bride selection, and wedding ceremonies. In the past, customs such as “bride kidnapping” and “brother-in-law marrying the widow” existed, though marriages between people of the same surname and lineage were prohibited. However, marriage between cousins was common.

The traditional Naxi wedding is called “Su Zi” (素字), which means “welcoming the life spirit.” The Naxi believe that each person has a life spirit, known as “Su” (素). The bride, as an outsider, must have her life spirit welcomed into the groom’s home, merging it with the spirits of the groom’s family.

The ceremony involves the Dongba (东巴) priest selecting an auspicious day and preparing items such as arrows, poles, bamboo baskets, towers, bridges, stones, and threads for the ceremony. The bride bids farewell to her ancestors and her family’s hearth, and upon entering the groom’s home, she participates in a series of rituals, including the washing of her hair and paying respects to the ancestral spirits.

Marriage Rituals in the Qing Dynasty

After the Qing Dynasty’s reform in Lijiang (丽江), the government promoted Han Chinese marriage customs, including the six traditional rites of marriage, such as name inquiry, engagement, visiting the bride’s family, and wedding celebrations.

The Mosuo People of Lugu Lake (泸沽湖)

In the Lugu Lake (泸沽湖) region, home to the Mosuo (摩梭) people, three types of family structures exist: matrilineal families, patrilineal families, and families with both matrilineal and patrilineal structures. The matrilineal family is the dominant form, where all members trace their lineage through the mother. Property is inherited through the maternal line, and the role of family head is usually held by the eldest or most capable woman. The family’s resources and assets are shared among the family members, and there is minimal conflict over inheritance.

“Asha” Marriage Tradition

In Mosuo culture, the “Asha” (阿夏) marriage is a unique form of “walking marriage.” In this tradition, men and women do not marry but establish a romantic relationship. Couples live in the mother’s home, and the man visits the woman during the night but returns to his own mother’s house in the morning. Children born from this union inherit the mother’s lineage. This form of marriage is deeply rooted in Mosuo customs, where a man and a woman must not belong to the same maternal lineage to form such a relationship.

This system reflects the Mosuo belief that women are the foundation of the family, and the continuity of the family is tied to the maternal line.

Daily Etiquette

The Naxi (纳西) people are known for their hospitality. Upon returning from a hunt, they will share their catch with any passerby they meet. When a distinguished guest arrives, the host will prepare a meal with six to eight different dishes to entertain them.

There are certain taboos and customs in Naxi culture:

When arriving at a village by horse, one must dismount, and it is forbidden to tie the horse near the Heavenly Temple (祭天堂) or other sacred places.

Climbing on a tripod or disturbing the ash in the cooking stove is considered disrespectful.

Outsiders should not observe rituals performed in honor of the heavens, ancestors, or war gods.

It is also forbidden to sit on the threshold, or use knives or axes to chop anything on the threshold.

In some places, singing mountain songs inside the house is considered bad luck.

Killing draft oxen, pack horses, or the rooster that crows at dawn is prohibited, as is eating dog meat.

Food and Eating Habits

General Eating Habits

The Naxi people typically have three meals a day. Breakfast usually consists of steamed buns (馒头) or water-steamed flatbread (水焖粑粑). Lunch and dinner are more substantial, often featuring one or two stir-fried dishes, pickled vegetables, and soups. The Naxi particularly enjoy dishes such as beef hotpot (牛肉汤锅) and dried meat (干巴), which are also popular among the Hui people (回族).

The diet is diverse, especially in both flat and mountainous regions. A wide variety of vegetables are available throughout the year, and crops like potatoes, turnips, and beans are commonly grown in the mountains. Local specialties are used to create various unique dishes, such as:

Steamed Cordyceps Duck (清蒸虫草鸭)

Fritillary Chicken (贝母鸡)

Gastrodia Chicken (天麻鸡)

One traditional dish, Stuffed Matsutake (酿松茸), is made by stuffing the caps of Matsutake mushrooms with minced meat and steaming it. This dish is especially prepared for sacrificial ceremonies, particularly those dedicated to ancestor worship.

Meat Consumption

Pork is the primary meat consumed by the Naxi, with most pork being preserved through salting and curing. The Pipa Pig (琵琶猪) from Lijiang (丽江) and Yongning (永宁) is particularly famous for being able to be preserved for years without spoiling. When working outdoors, the Naxi often carry wheat flatbreads (麦面粑粑) or tsampa (糌粑) with them. Meals are generally enjoyed together, seated around a table, and in winter, it is customary to eat in a sunlit area.

Special Local Foods

Lijiang Baobao (丽江粑粑)

A beloved local snack, Lijiang Baobao is a finely crafted pastry made with high-quality wheat flour from the region. The dough is mixed with lard, sesame oil, and eggs, then stuffed, fried, and baked over low heat to achieve a crispy, flaky texture. This delicious treat has a unique flavor and is a nostalgic favorite for many.

Rice Sausage (米灌肠)

This is a traditional Naxi snack, made from rice and seasoned meats stuffed into a casing. It is a distinctive dish and popular among locals.

Chickpea Jelly (鸡豆凉粉)

Made from locally grown chickpeas (also known as chicken peas or 鸡豌豆) in Lijiang, this jelly-like dish has a black color due to the natural pigments in the peas. It is commonly referred to as black jelly (黑凉粉).

Other Local Specialties

Candied Hawthorn (海棠果蜜饯)

Citron Candied Fruit (香橼蜜饯)

Buddha’s Hand Herb (佛掌参)

White Bean Crispy Meat (白芸豆酥肉)

Lily Balls (百合圆子)

Pork Ribs (大肉)

Old Dragon Skin (老龙皮)

Lijiang Stewed Wine (丽江窨酒)

Pipa Pork (琵琶肉)

Korean-Style Meat (高丽肉)

Pine Nut Fried Chicken (松子炒鸡)

Triple Water (三叠水)

Black and White Sesame Soup (黑白麻补)

These foods are often enjoyed during festivals and special occasions, offering a rich taste of the Naxi culinary tradition.

Notable Individuals

He Zhiqiang (和志强)

He Zhiqiang served as the Governor of Yunnan Province for the 6th, 7th, and 8th terms. He is a senior engineer with the rank of professor.

Fang Guoyu (方国瑜)

A renowned historian, educator, and linguist, Fang Guoyu is considered a pioneer in the study of Southwest ethnic history and the foundation of Yunnan’s local history.

Yang Feng (杨凤)

A pioneer in animal nutrition and feed science, Yang Feng is the honorary president of Sichuan Agricultural University (四川农业大学).

Li Rujiong (李汝炯)

A famous anti-Japanese general, artillery expert, and a major general in the Chinese Army.

He Guocai (和国才)

A major general, He Guocai serves as the political commissar of the Police and Coast Guard College (公安海警高等专科学校).

He Zhihong (和志虹)

A Chinese peacekeeping police officer who sacrificed his life in Haiti on January 13, 2010. He was honored as a martyr.

He Zhigang (和志刚)

A calligrapher, He Zhigang is one of China’s Top Ten Outstanding Young People (2003).

Bai Gengsheng (白庚胜)

Vice Chairman of the Chinese Writers’ Association (中国作家协会).

Xuan Ke (宣科)

A music ethnologist, known for his studies of ethnic music.

He Duanqi (和段琪)

Vice Governor of Yunnan Province (云南省).

Sun Shaolan (孙少兰)

A famous singer, Sun Shaolan is best known for her portrayal of Jiang Jie (江姐), the revolutionary heroine.

He Zhankun (和占钧)

Former Vice Chairman of the Yunnan Provincial Political Consultative Conference (云南省政协).

Xie Yi (解毅)

The Director of the Yunnan Provincial Department of Human Resources and Social Security (云南省人力资源和社会保障厅).

He Zixing (和自兴)

A member of the China National Nuclear Corporation (中国核工业集团公司), He Zixing also serves as the company’s Deputy General Manager.

Yang Guangyue (杨光跃)

A Major General (少将) in the People’s Liberation Army (中国人民解放军), Yang Guangyue previously served as the Deputy Director of the Equipment Department of the Chengdu Military Region (成都军区). He is currently a Standing Committee member of the Yunnan Provincial Committee and Commander of the Yunnan Military District (云南省军区).

He Shaoquan (和绍全)

Former Commander of the Wenshan Military District in Yunnan Province (云南省文山军分区).

Li Qunjiang (李群杰)

A revolutionary and the Secretary of the Communist Party of China Underground Committee of Yunnan Province (中共地下党云南省工委).

Niu Hongwei (牛红卫)

An environmental activist, Niu Hongwei was the Chief Representative of the Nature Conservancy (大自然保护协会) in China. He was named an Asian Star by Business Week in 2003.

Dai Ruyi (戴汝吉)

A combat hero of the Volunteer Army (志愿军), Dai Ruyi was honored as a people’s hero.

He Zixing (和自兴)

A model instructor, He Zixing was posthumously honored with the title of “Heroic Martyr” by the Central Military Commission (中央军委) for his bravery during the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War (对越自卫反击战).

Zhao Zhongxiu (赵仲修)

A wheat breeding expert, Zhao Zhongxiu was recognized as a “50-year Influential Figure in Ningxia” (宁夏50年影响力人物).

Fang Baoxian (方宝贤)

An expert in solar energy and professor at Boston University (波士顿大学), Fang Baoxian is a U.S. citizen and expert in renewable energy.

He Weiguang (和卫光)

A world champion in mixed doubles skills, He Weiguang has excelled in competitive sports.

He Xuemei (和雪梅)

The captain of the China Women’s Gymnastics Team (中国女子体操队), He Xuemei won the balance beam championship at the China Gymnastics Championships in Japan (日本中国体操锦标赛女子平衡木冠军) in 2007.

Yang Shangkong (杨尚孔)

The head coach of the Chile National Gymnastics Team (智利国家体操队).

He Yudong (和煜东)

The first person to plant the Five-Star Red Flag (五星红旗) at the South Pole, He Yudong is a PhD in Physics.

Zhou Lin (周霖)

A traditional Chinese painter, Zhou Lin is known for his masterpiece “Golden Sands and Warm Clouds,” which is displayed in the Yunnan Hall (云南厅) of the Great Hall of the People (人民大会堂).

He Qiuxiang (和秋香)

A finalist in the 2011 Hua’er Duoduo China Finals (花儿朵朵中国总决赛), He Qiuxiang earned third place in the competition.

Mu Guang (木光)

The 48th-generation successor of the Mu Family (木氏土司) in Lijiang (丽江), Mu Guang is a distinguished researcher at the Chinese Academy of Management Sciences (中国管理科学研究院).

Yang Lisheng (杨丽胜)

A revolutionary martyr and national hero of the Public Security System (全国公安系统), Yang Lisheng was recognized as a Second-Class Hero Model (二级英雄模范).

He Guihua (和贵华)

A revolutionary martyr and national hero of the Public Security System (全国公安系统), He Guihua was recognized as a First-Class Hero Model (一级英雄模范).

He Jisheng (和继圣)

A Lieutenant General (陆军中将) during the Republic of China era (民国), He Jisheng served as the Governor of Guizhou Province (贵州省清乡司令).

He Yaozeng (和耀曾)

A military officer during the Qing Dynasty (清朝), He Yaozeng held prominent positions in the Qing military.

Wang Jiexiu (王洁修)

A Major General (中将) and Division Commander, Wang Jiexiu also served as the Yunnan Provincial Gendarmerie Commander (云南省宪兵司令).

He Gengji (和庚吉)

A scholar and official during the Qing Dynasty, He Gengji passed the Imperial Examination (壬辰科进士) and served as an official in the Ministry of Military Affairs (兵部).

Yan Bai (訚柏)

Prosecutor General of the Qinghai Provincial People’s Procuratorate (青海省人民检察院).

Zaxi Ciren (扎西次仁)

Deputy Secretary of the Tibet University Party Committee (西藏民族大学党委副书记) and President of the university (校长).