Dai Ethnic Minority

The Dai ethnic group, also known as the Tai (泰), Shan (掸), and Lao (佬) peoples, primarily speak the Dai language (泰语), a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family under the Zhuang-Dai branch.

The Dai are known for their rich folklore, with the peacock and elephant being symbols of good fortune. They are a water-loving people, often residing near rivers, and are renowned for their cleanliness, frequently bathing, and their love of hair washing, earning them the nickname “People of Water.” Traditionally, the Dai practiced Theravada Buddhism, which was spread to them from Southeast Asia, as well as indigenous religions.

The Dai are primarily found in China, India, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar, among other countries. As of 2021, the population of the Dai in China is about 1.33 million.

Distribution in China

In China, the Dai population is mainly concentrated in Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture (西双版纳傣族自治州), Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture (德宏傣族景颇族自治州), and the autonomous counties of Gengma (耿马) and Menglian (孟连). Other Dai populations are scattered across over 30 counties, including Jingdong, Jinggu, Ning’er, Lancang, Xinping, Yuanjiang, and Jinping. The Dai areas along the border with Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam have a close cultural exchange with these neighboring countries.

Dai Ethnic Subgroups

The Dai people in China are often categorized based on their regional dialects and local names. Some common subgroups include:

• Dai Le (傣泐): Found in areas like Xishuangbanna (西双版纳).

• Dai Na (傣那): Predominantly in Dehong (德宏).

• Dai Ya (傣亚): Located in regions such as Xingyi (兴义) and Yuanjiang (元江).

• Dai Beng (傣绷): In areas like Ruili (瑞丽), Longchuan (陇川), and Gengma (耿马).

• Dai Tu (傣突): Found in areas like Mangjing (芒景) and Mangna (芒那) in Lancang (澜沧).

The Han Chinese refer to the Dai Le as the Water Dai, the Dai Na as the Dry Dai, and the Dai Ya as the Flower Waist Dai.

History of the Dai

The origins of the Dai people are debated, with two major theories:

1. Migration Theory

The migration theory suggests that the Dai originally came from the northern regions of China, such as Sichuan, Sha’nan, and even as far as the Altai Mountains. According to this theory, the Dai moved southward due to displacement by other ethnic groups. They eventually settled in Yunnan and formed the Nanzhao Kingdom. After the Mongol conquest of Dali, the Dai were forced to migrate further south to the southeastern regions of China and Southeast Asia. Over time, this theory was largely replaced by other theories due to more research and archaeological evidence.

Some scholars suggest that the Dai originated in places like the Indonesian Archipelago, or the Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan regions, though there is insufficient evidence to fully support these claims.

2. Indigenous Theory

The indigenous theory proposes that the Dai people have always inhabited the region west of the Red River (红河) in China and extended along the upper Irrawaddy River in Myanmar and into Manipur in India. According to this theory, the formation of the Dai people is a natural result of the development of local economic and cultural practices, rather than through migration. Some scholars believe that the Dai originated from ancient Yue peoples, while others suggest the Shan (掸) people as their ancestors. However, these ideas have also been debated and are not universally accepted.

Dai Cultural Symbols and Beliefs

Spiritual Symbols and Beliefs

The Dai people have a rich cultural heritage tied to their environment and spiritual beliefs. Key symbols in their culture include the peacock, which represents beauty and grace, and the elephant, symbolizing strength and good fortune. The Dai have historically practiced Theravada Buddhism, which has had a profound influence on their festivals, rituals, and daily life.

Language and Writing

The Dai language, also known as Thai or Shan in other regions, uses the Dai script (泰文). This script is closely related to the Thai script used in Thailand and Lao script in Laos. The language plays an essential role in preserving the cultural identity of the Dai, especially in areas like Xishuangbanna and Dehong.

Development and History in China

Early History and Origins

Many scholars believe that the ancestors of the Dai in China were among the ethnic groups mentioned in ancient texts from the Song Dynasty that lived within the territories of the Nanzhao Kingdom and Dali. The Man Shu (蛮书) records the “Mangman tribe,” which is thought to refer to the Dai ancestors in the Xishuangbanna region. Zheng Xiaoyun proposed that the ancient Dian Kingdom was the first kingdom established by the Dai people.

According to the Lè History (泐史), around the year 1180, the Dai people in Xishuangbanna united under the leadership of Ba Zhen to form the Jinglong Golden Palace Kingdom. The establishment of the Mengle (勐泐) government marked the official formation of the Dai Le group in Xishuangbanna.

Some scholars also believe that the Ai Lao (哀牢) mentioned in ancient texts might have been an early subgroup of the Dai Tai people, with some of them integrating into the Dai population in China.

Yuan and Ming Dynasties

During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, the economic and cultural exchanges between the Han and Dai people became more frequent, especially as a large number of Han Chinese settled in border regions. This brought advanced agricultural techniques and cultural knowledge to the Dai, leading to rapid social and economic development in their areas. Early records from the Yuan period indicate that the Dai people in Dehong still used slaves for labor. By the late Yuan and Ming periods, the Dai region transitioned into a feudal society, with iron tools becoming widespread. New crops, including cotton, were introduced, and industries like handicrafts flourished, producing exquisite items such as Gan Ya Silk (干崖锦) and Silk Canopies (丝幔帐).

Struggles and Resistance

Due to its location on the border, the Dai region was often the first to face imperialist invasions. During the period of imperialist aggression, not only were resources looted and goods dumped, but political, military, and cultural invasions also occurred. Spies were sent, and missions such as exploration, investigation, and missionary activities were used to infiltrate the Dai regions to gather intelligence, map areas, foster upper-class relations, and even initiate armed invasions.

To defend their territory, the Dai, along with the Han, Jingpo, and Wa peoples, fought several armed battles against British and French imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Anti-Japanese War

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Dai, alongside the entire Chinese population, participated in armed resistance against Japanese fascism, making significant contributions to the defense of China’s sacred borders. In 1938, the construction of the Burma Road (滇缅铁路) saw Dai leaders like Han Futing and Han Wanxian from Gengma and Mengding leading local Dai, Wa, and other ethnic groups in building the road. After the Japanese occupation of western Yunnan, various ethnic guerrilla groups, including the Dai-Han Youth National Salvation Corps (领导人杨炳南), the Dai Self-Defense Army (led by Dao Jingban), and the Gengma Volunteer Team, actively fought the Japanese forces.

In 1944, a major counteroffensive began in western Yunnan, culminating in the expulsion of Japanese forces from Wanding on January 20, 1945. This victory in western Yunnan, often referred to as a “model for annihilating the enemy,” played a crucial role in the overall success of the war.

Autonomous Regions

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Dai regions were granted ethnic regional autonomy, with two autonomous prefectures and seven autonomous counties:

Autonomous Prefectures:

• Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture (西双版纳傣族自治州)

• Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture (德宏傣族景颇族自治州)

Autonomous Counties:

• Menglian Dai, Lahu, and Wa Autonomous County (孟连傣族拉祜族佤族自治县)

• Gengma Dai and Wa Autonomous County (耿马傣族佤族自治县)

• Yuanjiang Hani, Yi, and Dai Autonomous County (元江哈尼族彝族傣族自治县)

• Xinping Yi and Dai Autonomous County (新平彝族傣族自治县)

• Jinping Miao, Yao, and Dai Autonomous County (金平苗族瑶族傣族自治县)

• Jinggu Dai and Yi Autonomous County (景谷傣族彝族自治县)

• Shuangjiang Lahu, Wa, Blang, and Dai Autonomous County (双江拉祜族佤族布朗族傣族自治县)

The Dai in Southeast Asia

Thailand

The migration of the Dai into Thailand is not definitively documented, but many scholars believe that the Dai began migrating into what is now Thailand around the 10th century. Historical records from northern Thailand indicate that by 1150, a Dai village appeared near Nanben. In 1263, King Manglai, related to the Mengle King of Xishuangbanna, established Manglai City near Chiang Rai and later occupied Nanben. By 1296, Manglai had founded Chiang Mai, which later controlled the Lanna region by 1350.

Myanmar

The migration of the Dai people into Myanmar likely began in the 6th century. By the 7th to 10th centuries, the Dai in Myanmar were ruled by the Nanzhao Kingdom (南诏). There is some debate over whether the Nanzhao Kingdom was established by Dai ancestors. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the Dai established the Luchuan (麓川) state in northern Myanmar, which was later referred to as the Mengmao Long kingdom in Chinese texts. By 1229, the Sanglong (桑龙) kingdom was founded in the Assam region of India.

Laos

The Dai peoples of Laos are often considered to have migrated from Yunnan, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam starting in the 9th century. By the 10th to 13th centuries, the migration and intermingling of the Dai-speaking peoples with the Mon-Khmer-speaking ethnic groups began to form the modern Lao people.

India

In India, the Dai and Tai-speaking ethnic group with the largest population are the Ahom people, who are believed to have migrated from Dehong (德宏) in China in the early 13th century. Settling in the Brahmaputra Valley, they established the Mungton Sunham kingdom. The kingdom was dissolved in 1838 when the British deposed its last king.

Dai People in Modern Times

The Dai continue to maintain their rich cultural heritage across Southeast Asia, from Yunnan to Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, and India. Their customs, language, and festivals continue to be celebrated, and they remain an integral part of the cultural fabric of the region. Their festivals, religious practices, and agricultural methods all remain deeply rooted in their history and traditions.

Politics and Feudal System

Since the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, Xishuangbanna (西双版纳) has been governed under a feudal system with Tusi (土司) chiefs. The highest ruler in the region was the Zhaopian Ling (召片领), who was titled “Xuanwei Shi” (宣慰使) by the central government, meaning “lord of vast lands.” The Zhaopian Ling owned all land, forests, and water sources within their territory and would appoint their family members or trusted officials, known as Zha Meng (召勐), to govern specific regions. The Zha Meng held land and peasants in a hereditary manner.

Under the feudal lord system, land was divided into private estates, which were owned by the lord, and land held by peasants as a form of serfdom. Villagers, grouped into two categories—Dai Meng (傣勐) and Gun Hen Zha (滚很召)—lived under various forms of exploitation. The Dai Meng, considered the early residents, were granted larger landholdings, while the Gun Hen Zha, who had lost their land and personal freedom, were the lowest class of serfs. The system perpetuated heavy feudal burdens such as forced labor, unpaid work, and other various forms of servitude.

The feudal lords maintained their power through a complex political structure that included courts, military forces, and prisons. The administrative units under the Zhaopian Ling included the Yishiting (议事庭), the decision-making council, and various levels of local leaders such as Bahuoxi (叭火西) and Ban, who governed the villages. Despite the suppression of rebellions, the Dai people’s resistance against feudal oppression continued for many years.

Revolts and Resistance

The Dai people continued to resist the oppressive feudal system, often using cultural expressions such as songs to incite rebellion. In the mid-19th century, the Dai, Jingpo, and other ethnic groups in Dehong (德宏) and surrounding regions participated in a united uprising against the corrupt rule of the local Tusi (土司) officials. Led by figures such as the famous singer Hun Yihaihan, these uprisings were suppressed by the feudal lords and the Qing Dynasty. However, the Dai people continued to honor Hun Yihaihan as a hero and the “Song God.”

Culture and Beliefs

Religion and Spiritual Beliefs

The Dai people primarily follow Theravada Buddhism (南传上座部佛教), a branch of Hinayana Buddhism, but also retain remnants of animistic beliefs. The Dai in mainland China worship Dragon Gods and Dragon Trees (龙树), while village Shamans (波勐) and Priestesses (师娘) perform rituals to cure illnesses and foretell the future.

Theravada Buddhism in the Dai Community

Theravada Buddhism was introduced into Yunnan in the 7th century from Myanmar. By the 8th century, the teachings began to spread more widely, with the Xishuangbanna area reaching its peak by the 10th to 15th centuries. The Dai people in Xishuangbanna are predominantly of the Run school (润派) of Buddhism, which is characterized by forest-dwelling monks who brought sacred Pali Buddhist texts to the region. The Run school later spread to Dehong (德宏) and Lincang (临沧), while other schools such as Duo Lie (多列) and Zuo Zhi (左祗) appeared in other regions.

The practice of entering the monastery for religious life is common among Dai men, especially in Xishuangbanna, where almost every young man spends time as a monk. They learn to read and chant Buddhist scriptures before returning to secular life. This practice has led to significant religious and social obligations, with villagers collectively supporting the monasteries, accounting for about 20% of the agricultural income in some areas.

Changes in Religious Views

Since the 1990s, there has been a shift in religious views among the younger generation of Dai people in China. While the elderly continue traditional religious practices, younger people prioritize education over monastic life, and the number of children entering monasteries has significantly decreased. Despite this, younger generations do not oppose traditional religious customs.

Indigenous Religious Practices

In addition to Buddhism, the Dai people also practice animistic rituals. They worship local deities, known as Diu Laman (丢拉曼), who are considered the protectors of villages. Annual rituals are held to honor these spirits, including sacrifices of cattle or pigs, accompanied by offerings of food and prayers. Dragon Trees and Dragon Gods (龙神) are also commonly worshipped in places like Menghai (勐海) and Yuanjiang (元江). In Yuanjiang, for example, the Dai people offer sacrifices to the Dragon Tree every year in the lunar month of March. The villagers paint the Red Bull with white patterns and wrap it in colorful cloths before the sacrificial ceremony.

This ritual is done to seek protection for livestock, ensuring their safety throughout the year. Some Dai regions continue the practice of slaughtering cattle and consuming the meat, a tradition that has been passed down for generations.

Traditional Clothing

Women’s Clothing

The traditional attire for Dai women is characterized by narrow-sleeved short jackets and tube skirts. In Xishuangbanna (西双版纳), Dai women wear white or crimson inner garments with a narrow waist and a wide hem, paired with colorful tube skirts. In places like Dehong Mangshi (德宏芒市), unmarried women wear light-colored, large-collared short shirts with long pants, while married women wear a crossover shirt with black tube skirts.

In inland regions, Dai women’s clothing is similar but has regional variations. For example, Dai women in Xinpian, Yuxi (玉溪市新平) use a special long waistband (over a yard long) to tie their tube skirts, which earned them the name “Flower-waisted Dai” (花腰傣). Their clothing predominantly features black and red tones, with a short jacket that reaches the waist, and the collar is adorned with intricate silver patterns. A long embroidered waist belt, reaching five to six meters, is worn around the waist, complemented by a pointed “chicken horn” hat (鸡枞斗笠) with an upward-curved brim.

The Flower-waisted Dai’s distinct headdress and attire bear remarkable similarities to ancient figures depicted on the Bronze Artifacts of Dian Kingdom (滇国青铜器), found in Shizhaishan (石寨山) and Lijiamountain (李家山), supporting the idea of cultural continuity.

Men’s Clothing

Dai men traditionally wear collarless, cross-over short shirts or large-collared short jackets with short sleeves, paired with long pants. During colder weather, they wear woolen blankets. They commonly wrap their heads with white or blue cloth. Tattooing is a widespread custom among men, symbolizing bravery, protection, and physical adornment. Boys begin tattooing around the age of 11, with designs often featuring tigers, leopards, lions, dragons, snakes, and eagles. The tattoos typically cover the limbs, chest, abdomen, and back, with one leg taking about two days to complete, and full-body tattoos requiring seven to eight days.

Cuisine

The Dai people’s staple food is rice. In Dehong (德宏), the Dai consume japonica rice, while in Xishuangbanna, sticky rice is preferred, often freshly pounded and eaten. One of the most famous Dai dishes is Fragrant Bamboo Rice (香竹饭), or Bamboo Tube Rice (竹筒饭), where sticky rice is placed inside a bamboo tube, soaked in water for 15 minutes, and then roasted. When eating, the bamboo tube is hammered to soften the rice, and the bamboo membrane sticks to the rice. The tube is then cut open, releasing the rice with a delightful fragrance and soft, delicate texture. Another unique dish is Pineapple Purple Rice (菠萝紫米饭), which is sweet, delicious, and beneficial for blood circulation and lung health.

For outdoor meals, Dai people often pack sticky rice wrapped in banana leaves and bring condiments like salt, chili, sour meat, roasted chicken, and moss. Common meats include pork, beef, chicken, and duck, with minimal consumption of mutton. They are particularly fond of roasted or grilled chicken, as well as fish, shrimp, crabs, snails, and other seafood. Dai vegetables include cabbage, radishes, bamboo shoots, and various beans.

The Dai also consume insects. The humid and hot climate of the region provides a rich variety of insects, such as cicadas, bamboo worms, large spiders, field crabs, and ant eggs. Cicada catching occurs during the summer evenings, when cicadas, soaked with dew, cannot fly. Women collect them in bamboo baskets and roast them to make a medicinal paste. This cicada paste is believed to have healing properties, such as cooling the body, detoxifying, and reducing swelling.

Bamboo worms are plentiful in the Dai region, and people collect them from bamboo stalks. The worms are ground up, mixed with fried rice flour and seasonings, then eaten with lettuce, or fried with eggs. It’s a crunchy and delicious dish. The Dai also consume ant eggs, which are gathered from large yellow ants that live on trees. The eggs are usually served in a salad, blanched in hot water, and seasoned with garlic, salt, vinegar, and vegetables.

Moss (青苔) is another unique ingredient in Dai cuisine. The moss is harvested from rocks in riverbeds during the spring, and it is either fried or roasted. After being cooked, it is crumbled and served with sticky rice or cured meat for a distinct and flavorful dish.

The Dai are also known for their consumption of wild flowers. Approximately 30 varieties are eaten, including climbing flowers, tang pear blossoms, white azaleas, yellow rice flowers, banana blossoms, and bittersweet vegetables.

Flavors of Dai Cuisine

Dai food is characterized by its fresh, spicy, sour, and wild flavors. It is believed that sour food refreshes the mind, aids digestion, and helps in cooling the body. Sweet foods provide energy and prevent fatigue, while spicy foods stimulate appetite and boost immunity. Fresh foods are enjoyed for their pleasant taste and lightness. The most popular flavor in Dai cuisine is sour, with dishes like sour bamboo shoots (酸笋), sour pea flour (酸豌豆粉), sour meat, and wild sour fruits. The most commonly used ingredient is sour bamboo shoots, which are soaked and fermented in large jars for about two weeks before being consumed in various meals.

Dai condiments include paie (撒苤) and nami (喃咪), which are unique and add depth to their dishes.

Dai people also enjoy homemade wine (酒), typically brewed with low alcohol content and a sweet fragrance. Tea is a local specialty, though the Dai prefer drinking large-leaf tea without any added spices. When preparing it, they lightly roast the leaves to bring out a smoky flavor. Betel nut chewing is also a common habit among the Dai, often combined with tobacco and lime, consumed throughout the day.

Architecture

The traditional Dai home is a stilt house (干栏式建筑), which is unique to their culture. In Xishuangbanna and Dehong Ruili (瑞丽), Dai homes are made of bamboo and feature a distinctive design. The houses are square with two levels. The upper level is used for living and stands about seven feet above the ground, while the lower level is open, used for keeping livestock and storing goods. The roofs are typically made of grass mats woven into a sloped shape.

In most areas of Dehong, the Dai live in single-story homes made of split bamboo walls or mud bricks, with thatched roofs. In the Yi Mountain (彝山) region, the Dai bamboo houses have wide and gently sloped roofs, designed for ventilation and shade, with rain protection being secondary. The elevated design of these homes allows inhabitants to avoid the summer heat and humidity on the ground level and provides a natural defense against pests. The construction is solid and integrated, offering resistance against earthquakes.

Inside the bamboo homes, the space is divided by a bamboo fence. The inner room is smaller and serves as a bedroom, off-limits to outsiders, while the outer room is a living area where guests are received. The cooking area, a sacred hearth, is also part of this space, used for both heating and food preparation. There is a wooden staircase to the lower level, and an open balcony is used for washing and drying clothes. Traditionally, the roofs of these houses were made of thatched grass, but as the Dai people’s living conditions improve, tiles have replaced the thatch.

In areas with a more significant climate variation, such as regions with fewer mountains and more plains, the Dai have adopted flat-roofed earth houses (土掌房). These houses are made of wood and earth, typically two stories, with the upper floor used to store food and supplies. The thick earth walls are about three feet thick, providing natural insulation. The flat roof is often used to cool off during summer nights and is also a space for drying grain after the harvest.

Language and Script

Dai Language

The Dai people have their own language, which varies regionally and is known as Dai, Thai, or Lao depending on the area. It belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, specifically the Tai-Kadai branch. Around 66 million people globally speak the Dai language.

Similar to Chinese, the Dai language is monosyllabic and tonal. However, due to centuries of divergence and cross-border spread, there are considerable differences in phonetics, vocabulary, and grammar, even though many cognate words remain. For example, Bai Dai (白傣) has 22 consonant sounds, while Thai (泰语) has 21, making mutual intelligibility quite difficult.

Dai Script

The Dai script is a phonetic script used to write the Dai language. It has several regional variations, with four primary scripts used in China: Dai Le (西双版纳傣文), Jinping Dai (金平傣文), Dai Na (德宏傣文), and Dai Beng. Outside China, Thai (泰文) and Lao (老挝文) scripts are also related. After reforms in the 1950s, two main Dai scripts were standardized in China: Xishuangbanna Dai and Dehong Dai.

The Dai script is believed to have originated from ancient Indian scripts, and its development is closely tied to the spread of Theravada Buddhism and the Dai people’s belief in this form of Buddhism. There is some debate about the specific source script, with two main theories suggesting it originated from Pali or the Grantha alphabet, tracing back to the Brahmi script that entered India around the 8th century BC.

Like Thai and Lao, the Dai script groups consonant letters to represent tonal categories. However, differences exist: Dai splits consonants into two groups based on ancient voicing distinctions, while Thai and Lao also differentiate between aspirated, unaspirated, and voiced consonants.

Literature

Folk Literature

The development of Dai literature can be divided into four stages:

1. The Era of Ancient Songs, Myths, and Creation Epics.

2. The Formation and Prosperity of Heroic Epics, Legends, and Ballads.

3. The Rise and Flourishing of Narrative Poems.

4. The Flourishing of Modern Literature.

One of the most famous collections of Dai folk literature is the Dai Ancient Songs (傣族古歌谣), which includes 30 songs reflecting the production activities and living conditions of early Dai ancestors. These songs cover a wide range of myths, including the Creation Myths like “Ying Ba Kai Tian Pi Di” (英叭开天辟地) and “The Ancient Lotus” (古老的荷花), human origin myths such as “The Gourd People” (葫芦人) and “The Gourd Egg” (葫芦生蛋), and flood myths like “The Gourd Descendants” (葫芦传人种). Totem myths, such as “The Bird Maiden” (鸟姑娘) and “The Elephant’s Daughter” (象的女儿), are also important parts of Dai culture.

Famous epics include Bata Ma Ga Peng Shang Luo (巴塔麻嘎捧尚罗), a heroic story of the Dai people. Over 500 long narrative poems (长篇叙事诗) have been preserved in Dai tradition, with themes ranging from creation myths like Bu Sang Gai and Wa Sang Gai (布桑盖与瓦桑盖), celebrating ancestral achievements such as Ba A La Wu She Jin Lu (叭阿拉吾射金鹿), to historical accounts like The Battle of Mengmao and Jingqian (勐卯与景欠战争史), and social critiques such as E Bing and Sang Luo (娥并与桑洛).

Post-revolutionary literature includes works like Rainbow (彩虹) and Song of the Sands (流沙河之歌), which celebrate the new socialist life.

Martial Arts

In Xishuangbanna (西双版纳), Dai martial arts are known as “Fen Zheng” (芬整), while in Dehong (德宏), they are called “Jia Quan” (戛拳). Historically, Dai men were trained in martial arts from the age of 14 or 15 as a means of self-defense, protecting against wild animals, and confronting enemies. Yongle Village in Tengchong County (腾冲县) is renowned as the “Hometown of Dai Martial Arts,” where men, women, and children practice.

Dai martial arts have absorbed elements from Chinese Tai Chi, Long Fist, Xing Yi, and Qigong, as well as martial arts from Myanmar and Thailand, creating a unique style. Their basic stances include the Four-square Horse Stance, Bow Stance, and Kneeling Stance, focusing on stability, power, and rhythm. The techniques often emphasize fluidity and cleverness to defeat the opponent.

There are four main schools of Dai martial arts in Xishuangbanna:

1. The Local School, focusing on hand techniques.

2. The Chinese School, influenced by stick and staff techniques.

3. The Myanmar School, which emphasizes the use of long knives.

4. The Thai School, focusing on short knives.

There are over 130 sets of martial arts routines in total, with a wide variety of hand techniques such as Da Hong Quan (大洪拳), Xiao Hong Quan (小洪拳), and Pu Hu Quan (扑虎拳), among others. The Dai are known for incorporating animal postures into their martial arts, creating unique forms like Frog Fist, Snake Fist, Peacock Fist, Heron Fist, and Monkey Fist.

Science and Calendar

Calendar System

The Dai people have long understood the movement of the sun, moon, and stars, and have based their daily lives and agricultural activities on this knowledge.

In 51 AD, the Dai alliance state of “Mengda Guang” (哀牢国, Ailao Kingdom) submitted to the Han Dynasty, and the Taichu Calendar (太初历) was introduced to the Dai region. This calendar helped further improve the Dai people’s understanding of the celestial movements.

In 69 AD, the Han Dynasty annexed Mengda Guang and established Yongchang Commandery. The Taichu Calendar was extensively promoted in Dai territories and gradually became an integral part of Dai culture. The kingdom of Piao (骠国), located to the south of Yongchang, also adopted the Han calendar system.

In the 7th century, the Piao Kingdom (Srilanka Dynasty) created their own Piao Calendar, based on the Taichu Calendar. In 832 AD, the kingdom was conquered by the Dai state Meng She Long (南诏国, Nanzhao Kingdom), and the Piao people scattered, eventually merging with other ethnic groups in the Tibetan Plateau and forming the Myanmar (缅族). By the mid-16th century, the Kingdom of Ava in Myanmar, which inherited the Piao culture, conquered various Dai states and introduced the Piao Calendar to the Dai people, who gradually adopted it.

In 1966, the Shan State (掸邦), one of Myanmar’s federal states, reformed the Piao calendar and standardized it as the official calendar. Since the Shan ethnic group considers themselves to be the “Great Dai” (大傣), this revised calendar became known as the Great Dai Calendar. The previous Piao Calendar was relegated to the status of the Small Dai Calendar. Later, the Dai communities in Yunnan (滇西) and Northeastern India (Assam) also adopted the Shan State standard calendar.

Calendar Rules

The Dai Calendar features two types: the Great Dai Calendar and the Small Dai Calendar, which share the same basic calculation rules, except for the starting year. The Great Dai Calendar begins in 95 BC, while the Small Dai Calendar starts in 638 AD.

The Dai Calendar follows a 60-year cycle based on the 10 Heavenly Stems and 12 Earthly Branches, similar to the Chinese lunar calendar, where each year, month, day, and hour follows a set cycle. In a typical year, there are 12 months, divided into the Cold, Hot, and Rainy seasons, with each season having 4 months. Odd-numbered months have 30 days, while even-numbered months have 29 days, totaling 354 days in a year.

Every 4–5 years, an extra day is added to the 8th month, making it 355 days, and this year is considered a common year. Every 19 years, 7 leap months are inserted, with the leap month added to the 9th month, making it 30 days long. These leap years have 13 months and 384 days.

The Dai calendar’s length of the tropical year is 365.258 days, with a slight error compared to the modern 365.242 days of the standard Gregorian calendar. To correct this, leap days and months are added at appropriate intervals. The Dai months generally occur about three months ahead of the Chinese lunar months, with a few variations based on leap months in the lunar calendar.

Medicine

Traditional Dai Medicine

Dai medical theory is based on the concept of the Four Elements or “Four Towers” (四塔), which represent the fundamental elements of the natural world: Wind (瓦约塔), Fire (爹卓塔), Water (阿波塔), and Earth (巴塔维塔). The balance and interaction of these elements within the human body are believed to maintain health, while imbalances result in illness. Health is viewed as the dynamic balance between these internal and external elements.

Incorporating Buddhist teachings, Dai medicine also aligns with the concept of the Five Aggregates (五蕴): Form (色), Feeling (受), Perception (想), Mental Formations (行), and Consciousness (识), which correspond to the body’s structure and physiological functions. Dai medicine emphasizes the importance of the Five Precepts (佛教戒律), which include abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, and alcohol consumption, to ensure both physical and mental well-being.

Dai medicine combines various remedies and treatments, which can be quite different from Western or traditional Chinese medicine. Famous Dai remedies, such as “Ya Jiao Pa Zhong Bu” and “Ya Xi Li Men Nan”, are highly valued in the Dai community for their unique medicinal effects. These remedies have even been incorporated into China’s national pharmacopeia and regional drug standards.

Dai medicine diagnoses illnesses using the Four Methods of Diagnosis: Observation, Smelling, Asking, and Touching. Treatments are tailored to the patient’s physical condition, seasonal changes (Dai people divide the year into Hot, Rainy, and Cold seasons), and individual health status.

Dai medicine divides herbs into three categories: Hot, Cool, and Neutral, based on their healing properties. Dai treatments involve not only oral consumption but also methods like sleeping medicine, compresses, steaming, fumigating, powdering, and acupuncture.

The Dai people still maintain a large body of medical knowledge, with over 1,200 herbal remedies, 405 formulas, and 729 specimens cataloged. In 1983, Dai medicine was officially recognized as one of China’s four ethnic medical systems. The Xishuangbanna Dai Medicine Research Institute (西双版纳傣医研究所) has worked tirelessly to preserve and promote this knowledge, publishing numerous books on Dai herbal medicine, medical theory, and treatment techniques.

Paper-making

In Mengding Village (芒团村), Mengding Town (孟定镇), Gengma County (耿马县), the Dai people continue the traditional craft of handmade paper-making.

Dai women are the primary labor force and skilled artisans in this process. Every step of the paper-making process, from soaking the bark, mixing it with plant ash, steaming, washing, pounding, dipping, drying, polishing, and peeling, is done by hand.

The raw material for making paper is tree bark, and the result is a traditional and highly prized form of handmade paper used for various cultural and practical purposes.

Pottery

The Dai people are well known for their production and use of black pottery. Key production areas include Xishuangbanna (西双版纳) and Puer (普洱), particularly Zhenyuan (镇沅). The unique properties of black pottery, such as its excellent breathability, make it an ideal choice for storing water. In the hot Dai region, water stored in black pottery remains cool and fresh for a long time without spoiling. It is also used as a water diviner, with small holes at the bottom of columns in Dai Buddhist temples, where the pattern of water dripping is used for fortune-telling.

The raw material for black pottery comes from a special type of black soil found in the Dai homeland, mixed with sand and clay. The pottery is made by hand, shaped using a pottery wheel, and then etched with patterns before being left to dry and fired in a kiln.

Red pottery, typically used for water storage or as food containers, is most often found in Dai homes. In the Dai language, these vessels are known as “Mo Ding”. These red pots are larger in size, intricately shaped, and help to prevent spoilage in hot conditions. The material used is a local red clay, which is mixed with sand and shaped by hand. After the pots are shaped, they are decorated with simple patterns and then dried and fired.

Arts

Dai Drama

The Dai drama is a traditional form of performance art that has its roots in Xishuangbanna (西双版纳) and Dehong (德宏). Initially, Dai drama was a dance-based performance, where characters, such as hunters wielding knives, battled mythical creatures like dragons, phoenixes, turtles, and cranes. The development of the form occurred mainly in Dehong, with Dai drama also being referred to as “Yunnan Western Dai Drama” (滇西傣戏). It began around the early 19th century in Yingjiang (盈江) and Ganyan (干崖).

The early repertoire included performances like “Gongsun Li Tian” and “Mao Shao Duichang”. By the early 20th century, the first Dai drama troupe was established in Yingjiang (盈江), rapidly spreading to other regions. The performances are sung in the Dai language, and the music follows the male and female voice types. The scripts are often adapted from local folktales, while the performances feature a blend of traditional Dai dance and martial arts.

Dai drama performances have evolved over the years by incorporating elements from other theatrical forms such as Peking Opera (京剧), Yunnan Opera (滇剧), and Dai Kung Fu (傣拳). The use of face masks (which originally featured three colors: red, black, and white) has become more intricate, with “hooked faces” (勾脸) to express character traits. The music draws from a wealth of local folk tunes, and the instruments used have expanded to include various types, from gongs to drums.

Although Dai drama is popular among older generations, it faces challenges in attracting younger audiences due to language barriers and lack of interest. The passing down of the tradition is increasingly difficult.

Dai Calligraphy

Dai calligraphy is an art form that uses the Dai script for creating line-based designs. The tools used for writing include charcoal pens, “Liezhan” (铁锥笔, iron-tipped pens), fern pens, fountain pens, and brushes.

Traditional Dai calligraphy consists of six main styles, known collectively as “Nan Zhan He Zhe” (南赞贺折), meaning “Six Techniques” or “Six Major Forms.” These include styles such as “Duo Wen Nu Fei”, “Duo Qin Da Bi”, and “Duo Fa Kan”. In modern times, new styles have emerged in China, including “Zhe Mie Xing”, “Mao Bi Yan Xing”, and “Jin Teng Rao Quan Xing”, creating a variety of distinct Dai calligraphic styles.

Paper-cutting

Dai paper-cutting is a traditional art form used primarily for embroidered patterns, as well as for decorating doors, lamps, flags, and offerings. The themes mostly feature geometric patterns, flowers, and animals.

The distinctive characteristic of Dai paper-cutting is its bold and powerful knife work, often using large, deep strokes. The designs are usually full and rounded, with a rich visual texture that reflects the local aesthetic.

Dai women typically create paper-cuttings based on animals and plants, with popular motifs such as the white elephant, peacock, tiger, golden rooster, and white crane. Floral designs, such as lotus, camellia, and chrysanthemums, are also common.

Dai Brocade

Dai brocade is made with single-color weaves, and its pattern organization is highly precise. Dai women first tie fine ropes on the pattern board (花本) to create a template. Through a foot-pedal mechanism, they then interweave the threads using a manual loom, and the weaving process is repeated to form the intricate brocade.

To design a single piece of Dai brocade, hundreds or even thousands of fine ropes are used. The craftsmanship is highly refined, with vibrant colors and intricate patterns that represent important cultural symbols. Common motifs in Dai brocade include exotic animals, rare flowers, and geometric patterns.

Each pattern and color holds symbolic meaning. For example, the red and green colors represent the commemoration of ancestors, while the peacock design symbolizes good fortune and the elephant design represents abundant harvests.

Musical Instruments

The Dai people have a rich tradition of folk instruments, including the Gala Sa, Ding, Bi, Duo Luo, Elephant Foot Drum, Gong, Paigu, and Dai Cymbals.

One of the most distinctive instruments in the Dai culture is the Hulusi (葫芦丝), a type of free reed instrument. With its unique circular breathing technique, the Hulusi can produce a continuous sound, often spanning a fifth interval. Its tone is soft, mellow, and flowing, evoking a subtle and ethereal beauty when played under the moonlight in bamboo forests or traditional Dai bamboo houses. The famous composer Shi Guangnan created the song “Moonlight on the Phoenix Tail Bamboo,” which made the Hulusi a well-loved instrument throughout China.

The Elephant Foot Drum, named for its resemblance to an elephant’s foot, is often paired with gongs and Dai cymbals in dance and Dai drama performances. The Gala Sa is a bamboo percussion instrument shaped like a suspension bridge.

The Ding is a plucked string instrument, often played by young Dai people during courtship, earning it the nickname of “the instrument of love”.

Dance

Dai dance is highly varied, and in Xishuangbanna (西双版纳), it is referred to as “Fan”. Folk dances include Fan Nuwo, Fan Guanghan, Fan Guang, Ha Fan, and Fan Zheng.

• Fan Nuwo involves mimicking the movements of birds, with popular dances like the Peacock Dance, Heron Dance, and Dove Dance.

• Fan Guanghan uses a deer-shaped prop and is performed as a beast dance, with other dances featuring lions, elephants, etc.

• Fan Guang is a drum dance, where the performer carries or strikes a drum while dancing, typically performed by men. It is widely popular and includes dances such as Gaguan Drum Dance, Elephant Foot Drum Dance, and Big Drum Dance.

• Ha Fan is a group dance that involves both singing and dancing, often performed during festivals, such as the Yirahe and Flying Lantern Dance.

• Fan Zheng is a martial arts dance, incorporating elements of boxing, stick fighting, and knife fighting.

In addition to these formal dances, there are other folk dances reflecting everyday life, such as the Hat Dance, Fan Dance, Flower Garland Dance, Flower Stick Dance, Wax Strip Dance, and Lotus Dance, all of which showcase aspects of Dai life.

Among all the different types of Dai dances, the Peacock Dance is the most beloved and familiar, undergoing constant variation and development. It is performed during religious festivals and the New Year celebrations.

Customs

Festivals

Dai festivals are often linked to religious activities. The main festivals include the Closing Door Festival, Opening Door Festival, and Water Splashing Festival.

Closing Door Festival and Opening Door Festival

• Closing Door Festival, or “Hao Wa Sa”, falls on the 15th day of the 9th month of the Dai calendar (around mid-July).

• Opening Door Festival, or “Weng Wa Sa”, takes place on the 15th day of the 12th month of the Dai calendar (around mid-October).

On these two days, villagers gather at Buddhist temples to conduct grand Buddha offerings (赕佛), presenting food, flowers, and money to the Buddha statues, and performing prayers to seek blessings. The period between the Closing Door Festival and the Opening Door Festival is known as the “Closed Door” period, a time for increased religious activities. During this time, there are weekly rituals, with fireworks, firecrackers, and high-flying lanterns marking the celebrations. Young people can date but cannot marry or leave the village until the Opening Door festival.

Water Splashing Festival

The Water Splashing Festival, or “Sang Kan Bi Mai” (桑勘比迈), also called “Lenga Sang Kan”, marks the Dai New Year. This festival typically occurs at the end of June or the beginning of July in the Dai calendar (around mid-April in the Gregorian calendar). It lasts for three days, symbolizing the “best days.” The first two days are dedicated to sending off the old year, and the final day is for welcoming the new year.

On the morning of the festival, men and women bathe, dress in festive clothes, and visit temples to offer prayers. Sand pagodas are built in the temple courtyard, and people gather around them to listen to Buddhist chants. Afterward, women “wash the Buddha” by pouring water on Buddha statues. Following the ritual, young men and women engage in water splashing, exchanging blessings, and then join in processions, splashing water on passersby. A large dragon boat race is held on the Lancang River (澜沧江) in Xishuangbanna during the festival, with the boats dismantled afterward and stored in the temple until the following year.

Flower Street Festival

The Flower Street Festival is the most important festival for the Hua Yao Dai (花腰傣) and takes place on the 13th day of the first lunar month. On this day, thousands of young men and women from nearby villages gather on the Flower Street. Women, dressed in their finest attire, parade along the street, competing for beauty. The men eagerly search for their ideal partner. If a couple feels a connection, they will retreat to a quiet spot under a phoenix tail bamboo (凤尾竹) and lychee bushes, where they share a meal of “Yang Mie Rice” (秧蔑饭), a special dish made with sticky rice colored with flower juice and served with various meats. After the meal, the couple will formalize their engagement.

Marriage

Historically, the Dai people practiced intra-caste marriage. Among the chieftains, strict rules governed marriages, and polygamy was common. Chieftains also held power over the lives of peasants, including their daughters and wives.

In Xishuangbanna, before the Liberation, there were still remnants of pair marriages, where marriage and divorce were relatively free. However, the family’s and community’s status played a significant role, and marriage had to be approved by both the family elder and the village head.

When a couple decided to marry, the man would send his uncle or aunt to propose on his behalf. The woman’s family rarely voiced an opinion; the village head or family elder made the decisions. After marriage, the man was expected to work in the woman’s family for several years before taking her home. If there were disagreements, a wax strip exchange signified the end of the marriage.

In Gengma (耿马) and Menglian (孟连), the marriage customs were similar to those in Xishuangbanna, but there was a greater emphasis on stable marriages and less flexibility for divorce.

Death and Funeral Customs

The Dai people primarily practice earth burials, with notable differences in burial sites based on social status. Nobles and commoners are buried separately. After the death of a monk or Buddha statue, cremation is performed, and the ashes are placed in a clay jar and buried behind the temple.

Population

According to the China Statistical Yearbook – 2021, the Dai population in China is approximately 1,329,985.