Lisu Ethnic Minority

The Lisu (傈僳族) people belong to the Mongoloid race of the South Asian type. Their language is part of the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The Lisu people use two forms of writing: the old and new Lisu scripts, with their religious beliefs primarily rooted in primitive religion, although some also follow Buddhism and Christianity.

The Lisu are historically linked to the ancient Di-Qiang ethnic groups, sharing a deep cultural connection with the Yi (彝族) people. They are predominantly found in the Nujiang (怒江) and Enmei Kai Jiang (恩梅开江) river basins (a tributary of the Irrawaddy River), located at the border of China’s Yunnan Province (云南省), Tibet (西藏), and Myanmar (缅甸) in Kachin State. Smaller populations are also dispersed across other regions of Yunnan and extend to the northeastern part of India, as well as areas at the border between Thailand and Myanmar.

Population and Distribution

According to the China Statistical Yearbook 2021 (中国统计年鉴-2021), the total Lisu population in China is approximately 762,996 people.

• Population: 762,996 (in China)

• Language: Lisu language (傈僳语)

• Script: Lisu script (傈僳文)

• Religion: Primitive religion, Buddhism, Christianity

• Key Festivals: Bathhouse Festival (澡堂会), Kuoshi Festival (阔时节), New Tasting Festival (尝新节)

Name and Origin

The name “Lisu” (傈僳) is both a self-designation and an external term. It was first mentioned in the Tang Dynasty in historical texts. In his work “Man Shu” (蛮书), the scholar Fan Chuo referred to the Lisu as “Li Su” (栗粟), considering them a subgroup of the Wuman (乌蛮) people. The Lisu people share a close ethnic origin with the Yi (彝族) and Naxi (纳西族) peoples.

During the Ming Dynasty, the Lisu were still regarded as a branch of the Lolo (罗罗) people, as mentioned in the “Jingtai Yunnan Geographic Records” (景泰云南图经志书), which referred to them as “Li Su, a separate branch of the Lolo.” Despite variations in spelling, the name “Lisu” has been in use for over 1,000 years.

History

The Lisu (傈僳族) ethnic group has a rich and ancient cultural history, and their creation myths have many similarities with those of other ethnic groups in the region, such as the Yi (彝族), Naxi (纳西族), and Hani (哈尼族) people. This points to a deep-rooted kinship that goes back to ancient times, as these groups are part of the Yi language branch. Over the centuries, these groups gradually differentiated, forming distinct tribal communities, which eventually led to the emergence of the Lisu as a distinct ethnic group.

Anthropology and Physical Traits

From an anthropological perspective, the Lisu, along with the Naxi, Yi, Hani, and Lahu (拉祜) people, share common traits typical of plateau-dwelling ethnic groups: tall stature, high noses, thin lips, and deep-set eyes. These characteristics set them apart from other groups such as the Wa (佤族) and Bru (布朗族), who belong to the South Asian language family, as well as the Zhuang (壮族) and Dai (傣族) people, who belong to the Tai-Kadai language family.

Clan System and Totem Worship

In the Nujiang (怒江) region, the Lisu people maintained a strong clan system and totem worship until the early years of the People’s Republic of China. Several clan names and their totemic practices, such as tiger, bamboo, and fish, were very similar to those of the Yi people from the Daxiliangshan (大小凉山) area. These clans were organized based on blood kinship, and only members of a particular clan could adopt its name and totem, recognizing a common ancestral origin. The resemblance between Lisu clan names (such as tiger, bamboo, and fish) and those of the Yi people suggests a close relationship in ancient times.

Ancient Historical Records

The earliest references to the Lisu people appear in historical records from the Tang Dynasty. In the Book of Barbarians (蛮书) by Fan Chuo (樊绰), the Lisu people were referred to as “Li Su” (栗粟), a subgroup of the Wuman (乌蛮) people. In the Jingtai Yunnan Geographic Records (景泰云南图经志书) of the Ming Dynasty, they were still seen as a branch of the Lolo (罗罗) people. These historical texts point to the deep roots of the Lisu people within the broader Yi language group.

The Rise of the Lisu Tribe

During the 3rd century of the Three Kingdoms period, the region encompassing modern-day Sichuan (四川), Yunnan (云南), and parts of Tibet (西藏) was home to the Lisu’s early ancestors. The tribes of the Lisu and Yi people, such as Sui, Xi, and Pu, lived in this vast area. The names of these tribes are mentioned in the Huayang Guo Zhi (华阳国志) by Zhao Rukuo (赵汝适), where he described the various tribal groups in the region.

In the 8th century, the Tang Dynasty was involved in a political struggle with Tubo (吐蕃) and Nanzhao (南诏) over control of the southwestern region. During this time, the Lisu people began to appear under the name “Li Su” in historical records, particularly in the Ming Dynasty (14th century).

The Struggle for Independence

During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Lisu, along with other ethnic groups, suffered under the feudal and imperialistic pressures exerted by the ruling classes. These classes, including local rulers and imperial overlords, imposed heavy taxes and forced labor upon the Lisu people, who had long lived in a state of relative independence.

The Lisu people faced several waves of resistance against imperial control, beginning with early anti-Qing uprisings in the 18th century. These uprisings, led by figures like Zhanglao (张老), were primarily driven by the exploitation of their land and resources by foreign and domestic authorities. However, despite their best efforts, these revolts were ultimately suppressed due to a combination of military and political forces aligned against them.

20th Century Struggles

In the early 20th century, the Lisu people’s resistance movements intensified, particularly in the Nujiang (怒江) region, which saw a series of uprisings against foreign and local authorities. During this time, German explorers like Brünhild Huppe and Jean Dumas clashed with Lisu people who were resisting foreign occupation and oppression. In the 1930s, the Lisu people played a major role in resisting the Japanese invasion in the Yunnan region, where they formed alliances with other local ethnic groups, including the Dai (傣族) and Jingpo (景颇族).

In 1948, the Chinese Communist Party began working with local Lisu leaders to establish underground organizations and eventually, by 1950, the region was liberated from the control of both local warlords and imperial forces.

Social and Economic Development

Throughout their history, the Lisu people have experienced significant social and economic challenges, particularly due to colonial and feudal systems that stifled their growth. However, during the 20th century, following the Chinese Revolution, the Lisu people began to emerge from centuries of oppression. The region was opened up to modern developments, with new infrastructures, social reforms, and educational advancements introduced in the 1950s.

By the late 20th century, the Lisu had experienced greater social mobility, including participation in local governance and broader Chinese political processes. Yet, their traditional lifestyle of agriculture, hunting, and gathering remained deeply rooted, and their rich cultural heritage continued to play an important role in their identity.

Political Structure and Social Organization

Clan System and Family Organization

The Lisu people refer to a group of descendants from a common ancestor as “Chuo Er” in their language, meaning a clan. Each clan has its own name. In the Nujiang (怒江) region, the Lisu people have 18 distinct clans, such as Tiger, Bear, Monkey, Snake, Sheep, Fish, Chicken, Bee, Buckwheat, Hemp, and others. Clan organizations are a crucial link in the Lisu social structure, but these have gradually dissolved due to frequent migrations, wars, and the passage of time.

Once settled in the Nujiang region, the Lisu people became scattered, and the old clan system became increasingly difficult to maintain. Though they retained symbolic clan names and some cultural ties, their economic connections weakened. These clan bonds are most evident during rituals involving blood revenge, where members come together based on their shared ancestry.

Role of Families and Villages

In Lisu society, families (referred to as “Ti Er” in Lisu) play a significant role. Families have their own surname, land, and sacred burial grounds, such as the “Ghost Tree.” The family head is typically an older, respected, and wealthy male member who is chosen for his wisdom and wealth. Family members work together in agricultural activities, help each other build houses, and share the tasks of slaughtering animals and exchanging labor. Marriage rites, funeral expenses, and other family obligations are also shared among family members.

The Lisu language also refers to villages as “Ka,” which means a place where related bloodlines live together. These villages maintain relative independence. The composition of a village can vary:

1. A single extended family within a clan.

2. A union of two or more families from the same clan.

3. A mixture of families from different clans.

Each village has its own public forests, hunting grounds, uncultivated lands, and burial sites. Members of the village have the right to cultivate and use these resources. Village members are expected to cooperate, especially when contributing to tribute payments to local rulers or when conflicts arise with neighboring villages. The village head, known as “Shipa,” is usually chosen from among the family leaders based on respect and reputation rather than through inheritance or democratic election. The village head is responsible for resolving disputes, leading production activities, and overseeing religious ceremonies. In the past, village heads were often appointed as local rulers during the reign of the feudal lords and later during the Kuomintang (国民党) period.

Traditional Disputes and Conflict Resolution

In the past, Lisu villages lacked a unified political authority. Conflicts between villages often arose due to issues such as marriage, land disputes, debts, and theft, leading to violent clashes. In these conflicts, all able-bodied men from the village were expected to participate, while women took on support and care roles. They also had the right to mediate in battles, and if a woman arrived on the battlefield and called for a ceasefire, the fighting often stopped immediately. It was customary not to harm women during such clashes; if a woman was injured, the conflict would be prolonged.

Land Ownership and Social Structure Before 1949

Before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the land ownership system in Nujiang was a mix of private and communal ownership. The Lisu people practiced a form of “shared land cultivation,” where several households within a family or clan would jointly work on family-owned lands. This system allowed for a smooth transition from communal ownership to private ownership over time. However, by the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, land began to concentrate among wealthier households, and many poor farmers lost their land and became tenant farmers or laborers.

The Rise of Feudalism and Slavery

During the 16th to 20th centuries, the Lisu people in the Nujiang region practiced a form of “patriarchal slavery,” where slaves were considered part of the family and worked alongside their masters. Slaves could even buy their freedom. The status of slaves was more akin to that of a “foster child,” and there were no significant class distinctions among slaves. However, in the early 20th century, with the weakening of the feudal lord system and the rise of new political forces, the slavery system was abolished.

Political Structure and Reforms in the 20th Century

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Lisu society did not have codified legal systems, but customary laws and traditions guided community behavior. With the establishment of socialism, many of these old practices were replaced with modern legal frameworks. Nowadays, most disputes are settled through civil mediation, and the village committee plays an important role in decision-making and resolving conflicts.

By the mid-20th century, the Lisu Autonomous Region (傈僳族自治区) was established in the Nujiang area, comprising the counties of Lushui (泸水), Bijiang (碧江), Fugong (福贡), and Gongshan (贡山). In 1957, it became an autonomous prefecture, and in 1986, Bijiang County was divided into two parts, placed under the administration of Lushui and Fugong counties.

Social and Economic Development

Historically, the Lisu people’s social and economic development was uneven, largely influenced by the natural environment and the presence of other ethnic groups. Those living in central regions like Lijiang (丽江), Yongsheng (永胜), and Huaping (华坪) were primarily engaged in agriculture and feudal land-based economies. In contrast, the Lisu in the Daxiliangshan (大小凉山) area still experienced the effects of slavery and feudalism.

In the Nujiang region, the Lisu people maintained a semi-nomadic lifestyle until the early 20th century. They practiced shifting cultivation and hunting in rugged mountain areas, where their physical and cultural characteristics were shaped by the harsh natural environment. It wasn’t until the mid-20th century that the government began implementing social reforms, bringing more stability and opportunities for economic growth.

Modern Governance and Development

In recent decades, the Lisu people have seen improvements in their political and economic conditions, thanks to reforms and social policies introduced by the government. Today, the Lisu people participate in the political life of their region, and their traditional way of life continues to evolve as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of modernity.

In 1954, the establishment of the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Region provided political recognition and greater self-governance for the Lisu people. In subsequent years, further administrative changes and reforms have strengthened the political and cultural rights of the Lisu people, ensuring that their identity and heritage are preserved in a rapidly changing world.

Population

As of 2010, the population of the Lisu ethnic group in Yunnan Province reached 733,108 people. The distribution is as follows:

• Nujiang Prefecture (怒江州): 287,971 people

• Lijiang City (丽江市): 126,734 people

• Diqing Prefecture (迪庆州): 113,769 people

• Chuxiong Prefecture (楚雄州): 60,606 people

• Dali Prefecture (大理州): 38,382 people

• Baoshan City (保山市): 34,117 people

• Dehong Prefecture (德宏州): 32,966 people

• Kunming City (昆明市): 20,252 people

• Lincang City (临沧市): 11,070 people

• Pu’er City (普洱市): 5,187 people

• Qujing City (曲靖市): 655 people

• Honghe Prefecture (红河州): 395 people

• Xishuangbanna Prefecture (西双版纳州): 322 people

• Yuxi City (玉溪市): 300 people

• Wenshan Prefecture (文山州): 286 people

• Zhaotong City (昭通市): 196 people

Additionally, there are about 40,000 Lisu people living in Sichuan Province.

According to the China Statistical Yearbook-2021 (中国统计年鉴-2021), the total Lisu population in China is 762,996.

Culture

Beliefs and Religion

The Lisu people traditionally follow primitive religion, which is based on nature worship and the belief in spirits and souls. Their main religious practices include sacrifices during times of illness or disaster. In modern times, Christianity and Catholicism were introduced to the Nujiang region (怒江) and some Lisu people converted to Christianity, while a small minority converted to Catholicism.

Nature Worship and Spirit Beliefs

The Lisu believe that all things in the world possess spirits, including mountains, rivers, the sun, the moon, stars, and various plants and animals. They believe these elements are controlled by gods or spirits, each governing a specific area. For example:

• Mountains have mountain spirits.

• Trees have tree ghosts.

• Water has a water god.

The Lisu people categorize their spirits into over 30 types, including:

• Courtyard ghosts (“乌沙尼”)

• Family ghosts (“海夸尼”)

• Mountain ghosts (“密司尼”)

• Water ghosts (“埃杜斯尼”)

• Dream ghosts (“密加尼”)

• Blood ghosts (“洽尼”)

• Road ghosts (“加姑尼”)

• Devil ghosts (“尼拍木尼”)

• Tiger clan ghosts (“屋豆尼”)

These spirits are worshiped and honored by the Lisu people through rituals and offerings.

Shamanism and Rituals

In Lisu society, there exists a group of shamans known as “Ni Ba” and “Ni Gu Ba”. The main distinction between them is that Ni Ba shamans can see spirits and are capable of using incantations to expel or control them, giving them higher social status. Some village chiefs also serve as Ni Ba shamans. In addition to overseeing sacrifices, shamans engage in divination using various methods such as bamboo stick divination, sheep bone divination, shell divination, and pig liver divination.

During rituals, shamans wear long hemp robes, wide-brimmed hats, and carry goat horns and long knives. They also wield a long bamboo rod while chanting ritual songs directed at specific spirits.

Spirit Beliefs and Rituals

The Lisu people’s beliefs about spirits are unique and complex. On one hand, they believe all things are governed by spirits, and the universe is controlled by a supreme god (米斯) and spirits known as “Ni”. As such, they hold these spirits in awe and perform rituals to appease them. On the other hand, they also exhibit defiance towards spirits, such as when they conduct a ritual to curse the dragon during a prolonged drought.

For example:

• In times of drought, they first pray to the dragon for rain, but if it fails to come, they perform a ritual to curse the dragon.

• When someone falls ill, they first seek help from the spirits, but if they remain ill, they curse the spirits and expel them to cure the disease.

Totemism

The Lisu practice totemism, with over 20 different totems that represent animals, plants, and natural phenomena. Some of the common totems include:Tiger ,Bear, Monkey ,Sheep, Snake ,Bird, Fish, Bee ,Buckwheat, Hemp ,Tea ,Bamboo, Pomelo ,Frost ,Fire .

These totems are often used to name Lisu clans. For example, the Fish Clan (鱼氏族) is named for the clan’s expertise in fishing, while the Buckwheat Clan (荞氏族) is known for cultivating buckwheat. Over time, totem worship has weakened, with only some symbolic remnants of the practice remaining.

Influence of Christianity

In the early 20th century, Christianity and Catholicism were introduced to the Nujiang region (怒江) by British and French missionaries. Christianity’s unified scriptures and organized rituals, along with certain moral teachings that aligned with traditional Lisu values, led to its spread in the region. After the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, the government endorsed religious freedom under the principle of “self-determined patriotism”, further promoting the spread of Christianity.

Clothing

Before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the majority of Lisu people in the Nujiang region (怒江) wore self-woven and self-made hemp cloth clothing. Only the wealthier families and higher-ranking individuals could afford cotton clothes. The tools used to weave hemp fabric were simple, typically consisting of four wooden sticks arranged in two horizontal and two vertical lines, with some using four wooden posts inserted into the ground and bound together with two wooden rods to create a rudimentary loom. A skilled woman could weave about 5 inches (12.7 cm) wide hemp cloth up to 6 feet (1.8 meters) long every day.

Women’s Clothing

There are two main styles of clothing for Lisu women:

1. Short tunic and long skirt: The skirt reaches the ankles and has many pleats.

2. Short tunic and pants: The pants are worn with a small apron tied in front and back.

The short tunic (or jacket) usually reaches the waist, with a round collar and no buttons. It is typically worn open, and during cold weather, women cover their chests with their hands or use necklaces made of beads, coral, or shells. Some women’s tunics have black fabric trims, and the primary color of the tunics is white, with the black and white combination being highly aesthetic.

There are also regional variations in the fabric color, with black, white, and flowered designs being common in the Lisu communities. Married women in the Nujiang area generally wear a right-side-over jacket with a hemp skirt, large copper earrings that hang to the shoulders, and head decorations made of coral or beads. Young girls often tie their braids with red threads adorned with small white shells. Some women also wear amulets like agates, seashells, or silver coins around their necks, which are called “La Ba Li Di” in Lisu.

In the Lushui area, “Black Lisu” women wear short tunics with a small apron tied around the waist and long pants. Their heads are wrapped in blue cloth and adorned with small coral earrings.

In the Yongsheng and Dehong areas, “Flowered Lisu” women wear bright and beautiful clothing. They love to embellish their tunics and skirts with embroidered flowers and lacework, wearing colorful headscarves and large silver or copper earrings. Their long skirts reach the ground and sway as they walk, giving them a graceful appearance.

In Sichuan’s Dechang region, young girls used to wear three-pointed hair buns on top of their heads. This hairstyle was traditionally added to as they aged, until they reached 15 years old. The hair was tied into a “shaped hat” made of woolen strips, known as “Wu Di” in Lisu, with braids tied at the back and earrings added for marriage.

Men’s Clothing

Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, Lisu men in various regions typically wore hemp tunics or short shirts and knee-length pants. Some wore a blue cloth head wrap, while others tied their hair into braids at the back of their heads. Village chiefs or wealthier men often wore a string of large red coral in their left ear to signify their social status. All adult men commonly carried a machete on their left hip and a quiver of arrows on their right hip, with the quiver often made from bear or monkey skins.

Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, especially after the Reform and Opening-up, the materials used in Lisu clothing have undergone significant changes, with hemp cloth almost disappearing.

Architecture

The Lisu people have various traditional housing styles depending on the region. In the Nujiang (怒江) and Sichuan Yanbian (盐边) areas, most Lisu houses are built using bamboo or wooden log cabins, while in Lijiang, Dehong, and Sichuan Xichang (西昌), the houses are primarily made from earth and wood.

Bamboo Houses

Bamboo houses, also known as “Qian Jiao Luo Di Fang” (千脚落地房), are typically constructed on sloping land. Wooden posts are erected in the ground, and wooden planks are placed on top. The walls are woven with bamboo, and the roof is covered with straw or wooden boards. The house is divided into two rooms: the first room is the guest room, with a large fire pit in the center, where guests sit around the fire. The second room is the sleeping area for the men and women, where outsiders are generally not allowed. If children marry, they either build a new house or expand the existing one, with the parents living in the inner room and the children in the outer room. Animal pens are usually located underneath the bamboo houses.

Log Cabins

Lisu people living in Lanping (兰坪) and Weixi (维西) tend to prefer log cabins, which resemble large wooden boxes. The walls are made by stacking logs that have been carved at both ends to fit into each other. This type of construction requires no nails, and the logs fit tightly together, making the house very sturdy. Larger houses typically have two rooms, while smaller ones have just one. The fire pit is usually in the center, and the family sleeps around it. The roof is made of wooden planks, and stones are placed on top to prevent the planks from slipping off.

Earth and Wood Houses

In areas influenced by Han, Bai, and Naxi (纳西) cultures, such as Lijiang and Dali, many Lisu people use earth walls for their homes. These homes are typically made with wooden pillars and earth walls, reinforced with rice straw. The roofs are covered with grass or wooden boards. The earth walls are particularly durable because of the pressure exerted during the construction process. Some houses have damaged roofs, but the earth walls remain as strong as iron, and these homes can last for decades.

Language

The Lisu language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, specifically the Tibeto-Burman sub-branch of the Yi language group. The Lisu people have a relatively unified language with no distinct language subgroups. However, there are two primary dialects: the Nujiang (怒江) dialect and the Luqian (禄劝) dialect. The Nujiang dialect is further divided into two local variants. Despite these dialects, the grammatical differences are minimal, and the vocabulary is largely the same, allowing Lisu speakers from different regions—whether in the Yalong River basin or the Jinsha River, Nujiang, and Lancang River basins—to communicate easily with one another.

Historically, the Lisu people did not have their own writing system, and information was passed down orally or recorded through wood carvings. In the early 20th century, a young Lisu man named Wang Renbo from Weixi County (维西) created the first pictographic script for the Lisu people, consisting of 1,030 characters. In the 1920s, British missionaries Fourier and Padong created a second writing system based on the Latin alphabet, known as the Old Lisu Script. In 1913, another British missionary, Wang Hui Ren, developed a phonetic script based on the language spoken in Taogu Village (滔谷村) in Wuding County (武定), Luqian County (禄劝), incorporating a grid-based format. The fourth writing system, known as the New Lisu Script, was developed in the 1950s by the Central University for Nationalities (中央民族学院) and the Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (中国社会科学院语言研究所) using the pinyin alphabet, and it was later approved for official use by the State Council. Currently, in the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture (怒江傈僳族自治州), the Lisu language and Old Lisu Script are commonly used.

Family Structure

The individual family is the basic social unit within Lisu society. A family typically consists of parents and unmarried children from two generations. Once sons get married, they typically build a separate house, usually within a year.

According to Lisu customs, the youngest or only son does not separate from the parents and is entitled to inherit the family’s assets. The eldest son and second son must live separately from their parents, so the inheritance rights for the youngest child can be established.

Elderly couples without children may adopt children, usually prioritizing relatives. It is also permissible to adopt from other clans. Adopted children are eligible to inherit property. If an elderly couple dies without any children, the family’s property is inherited by the closest relative within the clan. Daughters do not have inheritance rights, but if they marry, their husband, with clan approval, may inherit property. In the case of marriage outside the clan, the daughter only inherits a string of beads and some other small adornments from her mother.

Literature

The Lisu people have created a wealth of oral literature, which is passed down through song and storytelling.

Their myths and historical legends, such as “The Chronicle of the Founding” (创业纪), “Our Ancestors” (我们的祖先), “The Legend of the Hengduan Mountains” (横断山脉的传说), and “The Story of Creation” (开天辟地的故事), reflect the ancient Lisu society, offering insights into their views on the universe and human society. These tales celebrate the heroism and unyielding spirit of their ancestors in the face of natural challenges.

The narrative epics of the Lisu people are rich in themes and content, often featuring complete storylines and well-developed characters. For example, “Cu Zi Mu Gua” (粗兹木刮), a long poem with over 1,500 lines, uses realistic techniques and vivid language to deeply critique and denounce feudal arranged marriages.

Riddles, proverbs, puns, and nursery rhymes are also an integral part of Lisu folk literature. These serve an educational function, passing down knowledge of agriculture and life experiences while teaching social ethics and appropriate conduct.

Calendar

The Lisu people’s traditional natural calendar is rich in ethnic and regional characteristics. They observe various natural phenomena, such as the blooming of mountain flowers, the calls of birds, and heavy snowfall, to determine the appropriate time for agricultural activities.

The Lisu people divide the year into two seasons: the dry season and the wet season. The dry season usually starts from the end of the rainy season in November (Gregorian calendar) and lasts until the beginning of the rainy season in February. The wet season spans from March to October, during which temperatures rise, and there is more rainfall and humidity. Additionally, the year is divided into ten seasonal months based on natural events:

1. Flowering Month (March)

2. Birdsong Month (April)

3. Firewood Month (May)

4. Hunger Month (June)

5. Harvesting Month (July, August)

6. Gathering Month (September, October)

7. Brew Month (November)

8. Hunting Month (December)

9. Crossing Year Month (January)

10. Housebuilding Month (February)

These divisions reflect the close relationship between the Lisu people and their natural surroundings, guiding their agricultural and social activities throughout the year.

Art

Music

Folk Songs

Folk songs are a beloved art form among the Lisu people. As the Lisu themselves say, “Salt is essential, and singing is a must.” Folk songs have almost become the “second language” of the Lisu people. Whether during various production activities or during weddings, funerals, and other important events, Lisu people sing songs. Even in legal disputes or when mediating conflicts, they often use songs to resolve issues.

The folk songs of the Lisu people can generally be categorized into six types:

1. Ancient Songs (傈僳语叫“木刮布”): These songs are widely circulated and include well-known tunes like the “Production Tune,” “Ancient Battle Song,” “Bridge Building Tune,” and “Runaway Marriage Tune.”

2. Love Songs: Sung by groups of young men and women, love songs are often performed during courting or romantic encounters. Tunes like “Yuye Ye” are accompanied by the pipa or kouxian (a type of traditional string instrument) while resting in the fields.

3. Song Contests: During festivals or gatherings, young men and women engage in impromptu song battles, often using lively and spirited tunes like “Baixi Bai” and “Gua Mu Re.”

4. Sacrificial Songs: Sung during ancestor worship or ritualistic ceremonies dedicated to spirits and gods.

5. Funeral Songs: These songs are sung to mourn the deceased, with sorrowful and moving lyrics and melancholy tunes. Depending on the type of funeral, there are different types of funeral songs such as “Crying Song,” “Sending Off Song,” and “Elegy.”

6. Praising Songs: Created by the Lisu people after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, these songs often contrast the old and new, expressing the people’s love for the new society.

Lisu folk songs have a distinctive style. When singing short notes, they often use a vibrato, while longer notes are sung in a straightforward and simple manner. The tone is deep and resonant, creating a sense of inner strength.

Instruments

The most popular traditional musical instruments among the Lisu people include the pipa and kouxian.

• Pipa: The pipa is an ancient and widely-loved instrument in Lisu culture. It is similar to the traditional Chinese pipa, but with a smaller body, sometimes square in shape. It has four metal strings, and instead of fixed frets, it uses resin marks to indicate pitch. Players use their thumb and index fingers to pluck the strings.

• Kouxian: The kouxian is a traditional instrument loved by every young Lisu man and woman. It consists of a bamboo strip about 3 inches long and half an inch wide, with a reed in the middle. The player gently blows into it, creating resonance in the mouth, adjusting their breath to produce a soft and melodious sound. While it is small in volume, it is particularly beautiful when played in the quiet of the night, accompanied by soft singing or chanting.

Dance

The dances of the Lisu people reflect their daily life, struggles with nature, and their optimistic spirit. For example, there are dances that imitate animal movements, such as the Monkey Punch Dance, Dove Drinking Dance, and Bird King Dance. There are also dances that showcase daily activities, such as the Wedding Dance, Washing Clothes Dance, and Heel Dance. These dances are usually accompanied by instruments like the pipa and kouxian, although some dances, like the Heel Dance and Production Dance, are performed without accompaniment. These dances mainly express movement in the lower body, with minimal arm movements. In some dances, partners touch each other’s heels, using the sound of their heels colliding to maintain rhythm. The lively and vivid dance movements, along with the dancers’ joyful energy, create an atmosphere of excitement.

• Achi Mu Gua: Meaning “The Song and Dance of the Goat,” this performance features Lisu folk music, with energetic dance steps and a grand, powerful atmosphere. The dance includes a humorous goat fighting performance by the male and female dancers, which makes the dance even more engaging and artistically impactful.

Most Lisu dances are group dances, such as the Production Dance and Heel Dance. In these dances, men and women form a circle and dance in a circular formation, with the musicians in the center, often following the dance movements. At times, two dancers will face each other, performing similar movements, stepping forward and backward. For dances like the Wedding Dance and Millet Cutting Dance, the steps slightly differ. Men and women stand in separate lines and may move in parallel, cross paths, or alternate between moving forward and backward.

The dances are characterized by strong and lively movements, with rhythms that incorporate 2-beat or 2/3 mixed time signatures, creating a passionate and robust energy. The dances showcase the Lisu people’s vibrant and unique ethnic characteristics.

Customs

Festivals

The Lisu people celebrate their annual New Year festival, known as “Kuo Shi” (阔时), which varies in date based on the lunar calendar and the observation of seasonal changes. Historically, the Lisu in the Nujiang (怒江) region determined the time for their New Year celebrations based on natural phenomena, with no fixed date. However, it generally falls between the 5th day of the 12th lunar month and the 10th day of the 1st lunar month, coinciding with the cherry blossom season. During this period, it is customary to prepare sticky rice cakes made from indica rice and glutinous corn, as well as brew fragrant rice wine. To ensure a good harvest and favorable weather for the coming year, families place a small portion of the first batch of rice cakes on fruit trees like peach and pear trees. Some regions also offer a small bowl of food to dogs before meals, symbolizing gratitude for the seeds that dogs brought to the human world.

On the first day of the New Year, the young men and women dress up in their finest clothes and gather in the public gathering space known as “Da Chang” (打场) to participate in activities like crossbow shooting, dancing, and singing. This is an excellent opportunity for young people to express their love and form relationships. Young men often use their exceptional archery skills to win the affection of young women, while others express their feelings through beautiful dance and melodious songs. If there is mutual affection, gifts are exchanged, and many couples decide to marry through these festivities.

Spring Bathing Festival

During the Spring Festival, Lisu people in the Nujiang Gorge continue a unique tradition called “Spring Bathing.” This takes place at hot springs along the riverbanks. People set up bamboo huts or rest in caves near the springs and spend several days there, bathing multiple times a day. The belief is that this helps to ward off illness, boost immunity, and replenish energy for the upcoming year of labor and production. In the area near Liuku (六库), a “Hot Spring Poetry Contest” has been held for over a century, where singers from surrounding areas gather to compete in poetry and singing while enjoying food and wine.

The Kuo Shi Festival is now officially recognized as a Nujiang (怒江) celebration, held on December 20th every year. The festival includes singing competitions, crossbow shooting, zipline races, performances involving walking on blades and fire, and the annual “Bathing Festival.”

The Knife Mountain and Fire Pit Festival

In Dehong (德宏) and Tengchong (腾冲), Lisu people celebrate the “Knife Mountain Festival” (刀杆节) on the 17th day of the second lunar month. The festival spans two days, with the first day focused on “walking through fire.” A large pile of chestnut wood is burned to create a bed of coals, and performers walk barefoot around the fire, roll on the hot coals, and wash their faces with the burning material. They also pass heated iron chains through their hands, performing the “Fire Chain” ritual. Afterward, the whole community dances together.

The second day features the “Climbing Knife Mountain” ritual, where 32 sharpened knives are attached to two large chestnut poles, forming a ladder. The performers walk up this ladder amidst fireworks and firecrackers, creating a dramatic and awe-inspiring scene.

Harvest Festival

The Lisu people’s Harvest Festival occurs every year in the 9th and 10th lunar months when the new crops of rice and corn are ready for harvest. During this time, families brew new wine and gather in the village square to celebrate. An enormous bonfire is built, and the elders play the pipa and moon guitar, singing and dancing while recounting ancient stories. The younger generation forms a circle to dance, drink the local wine, and continue celebrating until dawn.

For Christian Lisu communities, Easter is celebrated in April, Thanksgiving in October, and Christmas in December. Due to influences from neighboring ethnic groups like the Han, Yi, Bai, and Naxi people, the festivals in the interior regions of the Lisu people align with those of these communities. During the Chinese New Year in the first month of the lunar calendar, the Lisu people honor their laboring oxen by feeding them salt as a gesture of respect. In June, the Torch Festival is celebrated, and the Mid-Autumn Festival takes place in August.

Marriage and Family

The Lisu (傈僳族) people practice a monogamous marriage system, where one man marries one woman. The marriage customs have unique features, particularly in the social freedoms allowed to young men and women before marriage. In larger villages, it is customary to use newly built houses or shelters for social activities. These spaces allow young people to freely meet, play musical instruments, sing, and socialize late into the night. Sometimes, these social gatherings also take place in sheds built for guarding crops. Girls begin participating in these social activities after a ceremony called the “Wearing Skirt Ceremony” (穿裙礼) at the age of 13 or 14.

In the past, it was common for parents to arrange marriages for their children, sometimes even before birth. The bride price was often high, and there was a tradition of prioritizing marriage within the maternal uncle’s family. A popular saying among the Lisu is: “The tallest tree is the fir tree, and the most important person is the uncle.” Therefore, it was customary to “ask the uncle first” before arranging a marriage. However, today, young Lisu people enjoy greater freedom in choosing their marriage partners, with marriages based on mutual love and affection.

Funeral Customs

The Lisu (傈僳族) people typically practice burial (土葬) for most deceased individuals, with cremation (火葬) reserved for those who die under unusual circumstances. Upon the death of an elderly person, the entire village suspends work for two to three days. Villagers and family members bring offerings of food, drink, and other items to the deceased’s home, where they assist in washing the body, combing the hair, and dressing the deceased in new clothes. The body is then kept in the home for one to two days, sometimes up to seven days. During this period, three offerings of food, meat, and water are made each day.

Before the burial, villagers perform a special funeral dance called “Shi Wu Deng” (施勿登) in honor of the deceased. The burial is typically scheduled on a day considered auspicious according to the lunar calendar, often a day associated with the Rat, Rabbit, Snake, Monkey, Rooster, or Pig.

During the funeral procession, the body is carried by four people and placed on a chestnut tree trunk (栗树干). The procession is led by two young men holding knives to clear the path. The family returns halfway, and the body continues to the public burial ground. In the burial area, a pit is dug and surrounded by wooden planks, and the body is laid facing the sun’s direction. The body is not covered with a mound, though in some areas influenced by other ethnic groups, mounds may begin to be used.

The graves are arranged according to gender and generation, with men placed to the left and women to the right. The graves are ordered from right to left, based on the deceased’s generation. The size of the grave depends on the deceased’s age. If the deceased is a man, items such as a machete (砍刀), crossbow (弩), arrow pouch (箭包), and pipe (烟袋) are placed at the head of the grave. If the deceased is a woman, weaving tools, hemp bags, sewing kits, and cooking utensils are placed there instead.

Taboos

In the past, the Lisu (傈僳族) people had many taboos related to pregnancy and childbirth. For example, pregnant women were not allowed to burn wood with branches, as it was believed that this would result in the child being born with a cleft lip. Women were also forbidden from carrying firewood and pig grass at the same time, as it was thought that this would cause complications during childbirth. Additionally, eating cucumber seeds was believed to cause birthmarks on the baby, and stepping over the rope used to tie a horse was considered bad luck for childbirth.

Because the Lisu (傈僳族) people did not calculate the expected birth date, many children were born in fields or by the roadside. When a woman gave birth at home, it was customary for her mother to assist with the delivery. If the mother was too old or had passed away, the husband’s or wife’s mother-in-law would take over the task. If neither was available, an older woman from the family would help. The placenta was considered the dirtiest part and was promptly buried at least one mile away from the house.

However, with advancements in healthcare and changing societal conditions, many of these traditional taboos have gradually lost their influence over time.