Poyou Township in Jianshui County, Honghe Prefecture, is one of the birthplaces of the Hani ethnic Manggu Dance（哈尼族铓鼓舞）. Below is a detailed introduction to the Manggu Dance of the Hani people in Poyou Township:
Origin
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The Manggu Dance has a long history, originating from the hunting and village defense activities of the Hani ancestors. In the ancient forests, wild beasts frequently appeared. To survive, the Hani people created leather drums from large trees with their wisdom and courage, and forged iron blocks into “mang” to scare away wild beasts and protect their homes.
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Judging from the dance movements, they are derived from field work, reflecting the ancient social life of the Hani people and the hardships of opening terraced fields.
Action Characteristics
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The Manggu Dance is a traditional folk dance performed by Hani men, using mang and drums as props. The movements are simple, rugged, and full of vitality, reflecting the Hani people’s enthusiasm for life and their love for it.
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When dancing, first, a respected elder presides over the opening ceremony of the drum. They offer wine on the mang and drum, walk around the table three times with the mang, pay respects to the four directions, and then knock three times on the mang to signal the start. Then, the dancers hold the mang and drum, beating and dancing while forming a circle, with the drummers on the outside and the mang dancers in the center. The body’s center of gravity shifts downward, the legs continuously bend and stretch, and the body moves up and down.
Inheritance Methods
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The Manggu Dance is an important part of the Hani people’s sacrifice to the village god “Angma.” Every year on the first day of the lunar new year that falls on the dragon day, in the Hani villages, the village head leads the young men to deeply worship the sacred “dragon tree,” and then holds a grand ceremony to honor the mang and drum in the village’s Manggu Dance field, starting three nights of mang drum Carnival.
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In daily life, the inheritance of the Manggu Dance mainly relies on respected elders in the village passing on their knowledge to the young, ensuring the charm of the Manggu Dance continues from generation to generation.
Protection and Inheritance Status
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In 2014, the Manggu Dance declared by Jianshui County was approved by the State Council and included in the fourth batch of national intangible cultural heritage list.
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Poyou Township National Middle School in Jianshui County has introduced the Hani Manggu Dance into the campus, specifically setting up Manggu Dance learning courses, and hiring Li Jianguang, a national intangible cultural heritage representative inheritor, as a guide, allowing more students to understand and learn this traditional dance and injecting new vitality into the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage.
Historical Origin
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Origin: The “Erzi Song” dance is a traditional dance art with Nu culture characteristics, preserved among the Bai people in Jiance Township, Yunlong County, Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan Province. “Erzi Song” means “dance of the dumb” in Bai language. It originated from the Nu culture, which dates back over 3,000 years to the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. This dance was initially a ritual to drive away evil spirits and later evolved into a folk dance for exorcism, blessing, and celebration.
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Cultural Background: “Erzi Song” is deeply rooted in the Bai people’s folk culture and religious beliefs. It reflects their ancient agricultural culture, cultural psychology, and unique artistic traditions. The dance is considered a “living fossil” of dance art and is one of the few surviving examples of Bai Nu culture in Dali.
Dance Performance
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Performance Process: The “Erzi Song” performance is divided into three sections:
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First Section: “Erzi Making a Feast”: Includes performances like “Jumping in Four Directions” and “Erzig rab Red Meat”.
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Second Section: “Erzi Making a Wedding”: Includes performances like “Blocking the Color Door”, “Worshiping the God of Happiness”, “Spring Official Trial”, and “Naming the Dishes”.
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Third Section: “Sending the Earth God”: Includes performances like “Worshiping the Earth God”, “Raising the Five Directions of Earth”, and “Sending the Earth God”.
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Role Division: The performance usually involves 10 people, each playing specific roles such as the old man, Erzi, Erzi’s wife, the Spring Official, the doctor, and the guide. All roles are played by men and are dressed according to their roles. For example, the Spring Official wears Ming Dynasty official clothing and paper glasses, while the old man wears local Bai clothing with a white paper beard and a cane.
Cultural Value
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Characteristics: “Erzi Song” is a primitive theatrical dance that combines dance and drama performance. It has characteristics of “primitiveness, ritualism, theatricality, and danceability”. It preserves ancient symbols of nature worship, fertility worship, and ancestor worship, reflecting the Bai people’s ancient farming culture and cultural psychology.
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Research Value: “Erzi Song” is an important resource for studying the history, ethnic relations, folk religions, and customs of the Bai people. It has high historical and ethnological research value.
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Inheritance Significance: As a precious part of the original culture in mountainous Bai areas, “Erzi Song” is an important carrier of Bai traditional farming culture, folk culture, and religious culture. It is a significant intangible cultural heritage that needs to be protected and passed down.
Heritage and Protection
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Heritage Status: In 2014, “Erzi Song” was listed as a national intangible cultural heritage by the State Council. Currently, there are only a few inheritance people who can perform “Erzi Song”, and the inheritance of this art form is facing challenges.
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Protection Measures: To protect and pass on this precious intangible cultural heritage, Yunlong County has increased publicity and protection efforts, conducted field investigations, and established project archives. In 2002, “Erzi Song” was invited to perform at the “Japan International Folk Art Festival”, bringing it to an international audience. In 2016, three protection and inheritance bases were established in Yunlong County, and a theme cultural square is being built in Jiance Township, the core area of “Erzi Song” transmission.
Representative Inheritors
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Yang Chunwen: As a representative inheritor of the national intangible cultural heritage project “Erzi Song”, Yang Chunwen has made significant contributions to the protection and传承of “Erzi Song”. Between 1998 and 2001, he led the training of local young actors and participated in international exchange activities, bringing “Erzi Song” to the world stage.
Introduction
Baisha Fine Music (白沙细乐) is an integral part of the traditional music of the Naxi ethnic minority. It is widely performed in Yulong Naxi Autonomous County (玉龙纳西族自治县) and Gucheng District (古城区) of Lijiang City, Yunnan Province. Known for its long history, unique style, and profound cultural significance, it is hailed as a “living fossil of Chinese music.”
Musical Features
Historical Origins
With a history of over 1,200 years, Baisha Fine Music is a classical music suite created by the ancestors of the Naxi people. It is believed to have originated during the Yuan Dynasty and is associated with Kublai Khan’s southern expedition. According to legend, after receiving assistance from the Naxi chieftain in Lijiang, Kublai Khan left behind part of his musical ensemble and scores as a gift. This marked the beginning of the transmission of Baisha Fine Music.
Musical Style
Baisha Fine Music is a large-scale classical orchestral form that includes instrumental, vocal, and dance elements. Its style is characterized by its antiquity, elegance, and beautiful melodies, making it highly artistically moving.
Instruments and Performance
The instruments used in Baisha Fine Music include the sugudu (胡拨), curved-neck pipa (琵琶), double-reed bamboo instrument bobo (芦管), horizontal flute, vertical flute, ersheng (二弦拉弦乐器), dahuti (大提胡), and Naxi fiddle. The performers are mostly elderly Naxi folk musicians who have passed down this music through oral and hands-on teaching.
Cultural Value
Cultural Heritage
Baisha Fine Music is not only a treasure of Naxi music culture but also an important resource for studying the history of ancient Chinese music. It integrates musical elements from the Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties, demonstrating the continuity and diversity of Chinese music culture.
Social Functions
In Naxi society, Baisha Fine Music holds significant cultural and social functions. It is often performed at funerals and major sacrificial ceremonies, expressing reverence for life and remembrance of ancestors.
Performance Experience
Performance Venues
Visitors can enjoy performances of Baisha Fine Music at the Naxi Ancient Music Hall (纳西古乐厅) in Lijiang Ancient Town (丽江古城). The hall hosts captivating performances every evening, attracting audiences from around the world.
Performance Times
Performances typically take place from 20:00 to 21:30.
Ticket Prices
Ticket prices vary based on seating location: Class A tickets are priced at 160 RMB, Class B at 140 RMB, and Class C at 120 RMB.
Baisha Fine Music is an important symbol of Naxi culture, showcasing the artistic talent of the Naxi people and their commitment to preserving traditional culture. If you have the opportunity to visit Lijiang, consider attending a performance at the Naxi Ancient Music Hall to experience the charm of this ancient music firsthand.
楚雄州武定县发窝乡彝族民歌（酒歌） Folk Song (Toasting Song) of Yi Ethnic Minority in Wuding County, Chuxiong
楚雄姚安县姚安坝子腔 Yao’an Baizi Qiang in Yao’an County, Chuxiong
Hani Ancient Songs: A Cultural Treasure of Yunnan
Hani Ancient Songs, also known as “Hani Habo,” are a treasure of the Hani ethnic group’s oral tradition. These ancient songs are more than just melodies—they are a living encyclopedia of Hani culture, history, and wisdom, passed down through generations. If you visit Yunnan, especially the stunning Red River Hani Rice Terraces, you’ll have the chance to discover this unique cultural heritage.
The Origins and Content of Hani Ancient Songs
Hani Ancient Songs were born from the Hani people’s long history of rice cultivation and migration. They cover a wide range of topics, from creation myths and migration epics to daily life, rituals, and farming practices. One of the most famous works is “Wo Guo Ce Ni Guo” (“The Twelve Tunes of Ancient Songs”), which tells stories of gods and humans through a structured and poetic narrative. These songs are not just entertainment—they are a way to preserve the Hani people’s identity and pass down their values.
Performance Styles
Hani Ancient Songs are performed in diverse ways, including solo singing with group accompaniment, call-and-response formats, and duets with harmonious choruses. They are sung during important festivals, rituals, weddings, funerals, and house-building ceremonies. The lyrics often express wishes for prosperity, harmony, and gratitude to nature.
How the Songs Are Preserved
These songs are passed down orally, with dedicated singers called “Habo Apo” or “Mo Pi” teaching younger generations. One of the most respected masters, Zhu Xiaohe, has played a key role in keeping this tradition alive.
Cultural Significance
Hani Ancient Songs are not just music—they are a window into the Hani people’s worldview. They teach lessons about respect for nature, community cooperation, and the importance of tradition. They are also recognized globally as a masterpiece of oral and intangible heritage.
Modern Efforts to Protect the Tradition
Today, the Hani community, local governments, and cultural institutions work together to protect these songs. They are taught in schools, showcased in festivals, and documented through modern technology. If you visit Hani villages, you might even witness a live performance or join a workshop to learn a tune!
Why You Should Care
Hani Ancient Songs are more than just a cultural relic—they are a living art form that connects the past with the present. By experiencing them, you’ll gain a deeper appreciation for the Hani people’s resilience, creativity, and deep bond with the land.
Don’t miss the chance to explore this unique cultural treasure during your trip to Yunnan!
This introduction balances cultural depth with accessibility, making it perfect for foreign tourists who want to understand and appreciate Hani Ancient Songs.
Taige (Tonghai Gaotai): A Traditional Folk Custom in Tonghai County, Yunnan Province
Taige (抬阁), also known as Tonghai Gaotai (通海高台), is a traditional folk custom of Tonghai County in Yunnan Province, and one of China’s national intangible cultural heritage items.
Tonghai Gaotai is a preserved form of taige performance, practiced during traditional festivals in Tonghai County. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, military settlers from Guangdong and Fujian brought the performance arts of “Taige (抬阁)” and “Piaose (飘色)” to Yunnan.
According to the Gaotai Society Stele (《高台会碑》) erected on April 27, 1842 (the 22nd year of the Daoguang reign of the Qing Dynasty), the custom of welcoming Gaotai originated during the Qianlong era in the counties of Tonghai (通海) and Hexi (河西, now under the jurisdiction of Tonghai County). It began in Qijie (七街, now a town under Tonghai County) and later spread to Hexi Town (河西城), Tonghai Town (通海城), and surrounding villages.
During the Jiaqing and Daoguang reigns of the Qing Dynasty, towns such as Qijie (七街), Tonghai County Seat (通海县城), Hexi (河西县城), Sijie (四街), and Yangguang (杨广, now a town under Tonghai County) established their own Gaotai Societies (高台会), which have passed down the tradition to the present day.
The Gaotai parade is usually held annually on the 16th day of the first lunar month and is called “Welcoming the Gaotai (迎高台).” In regular years, twelve Gaotai platforms are displayed, while in leap years, there are thirteen.
One of the key challenges in crafting a Gaotai is to ensure that the structural support, known as the “muscles and bones (筋骨)”—referring to the iron rods holding up the stage—remain hidden. Achieving a natural and seamless appearance is the hallmark of skilled Gaotai artisans.
A Gaotai is essentially a mobile stage, with each platform representing a theatrical scene. Carefully selected and trained children aged four to five are dressed up to play various roles, usually drawn from traditional Chinese opera stories. The Gaotai parade is accompanied by traditional music and features other folk performances such as donkey lanterns (毛驴灯) and dragon dances (龙灯).
On May 20, 2011, Taige (Tonghai Gaotai) was officially listed in the third batch of National Intangible Cultural Heritage by the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, under project number X-87.
Historical Origins
There are various interpretations regarding the origin and development of Tonghai Gaotai.
1. The Early Qing Dynasty “Earthen Gaotai” in Tonghai
According to the Tonghai County Gazetteer, it is recorded:
“In the Hexi area, when a child was born, a wooden frame would be set up in front of the house to display the child. Later, several families gathered in temples to give thanks to the gods. When times were peaceful, lantern towers were erected at city gates for celebration, and the local community participated enthusiastically.”
This account describes the early Qing Dynasty practice in Tonghai County, where to encourage childbirth and production, families who gave birth to boys would place the child on a square table in front of their house on his first birthday. They would set up an incense altar and invite neighbors to celebrate. The boy would then be carried in a parade around the town. At the time, the county magistrate would personally offer congratulations and present a “Hundred-Family Lock” as a gesture of official goodwill.
As more families had boys, several would place their children on a single table for a group parade. Eventually, people began using curved tree branches fixed to wooden frames, with boys tied and seated on the structure, carried by four men. This became known as the “Earthen Gaotai” (土高台). It is said that this was the origin of the Tonghai Gaotai tradition.
2. The Mid-Qing Dynasty “Gaotai Societies” in Tonghai
According to the Supplement to the Hexi County Gazetteer,
“Gaotai in Hexi began in the early Ming Dynasty and flourished in the early and late Qing Dynasty.”
Tonghai Gaotai likely originated from the Jiangnan region during the Ming Dynasty. By the late Qing, nearly every village had its own Gaotai drama troupe. During festivals, these troupes would tour neighboring villages for performances, leading to a golden age for Gaotai opera.
The Gaotai Society Stele from the 24th year of Daoguang’s reign (1844) states:
“To dispel loneliness, a ‘Gaotai Society’ was established to enhance the spectacle.”
This suggests that during the Qing Dynasty, Tonghai Gaotai was a highly popular folk tradition eagerly awaited by the local people.
During the Qianlong reign, brothers Xiang Zongkun and Xiang Zongbin from Qijie in Tonghai passed the imperial examination and became magistrates in Yangchun County, Guangdong and Jianyang County, Fujian respectively. In these regions, spring festivals featured performances similar to the “Earthen Gaotai,” with decorative, story-based displays.
Upon returning to their hometown after their service, the brothers brought these artistic elements with them and improved upon the original Earthen Gaotai—especially in character design, costumes, and props. This led to a fusion of opera, novels, mythology, folktales, sculpture, painting, bamboo framing, iron and wood craftsmanship, and decorative arts. Eventually, the Tonghai Gaotai evolved into what could be called a “miniature theatrical landscape” or a “three-dimensional storytelling bonsai.”
During the Jiaqing and Daoguang periods, due to the public’s love for Gaotai, Gaotai Societies were established in Qijie, Tonghai County seat, Hexi, Sijie, and Yangguang. They collectively purchased farmland, and the annual rent collected in grain was used for organizing Gaotai events.
By the Republican era, Tonghai Gaotai had become a distinct folk art in the county. There were four Gaotai Societies in Tonghai: in the county seat, Hexi, Qijie, and Yangguang. Each year during the first lunar month, these societies would organize twelve Gaotai parades. In leap years, an additional thirteenth platform was included, adding to the festive atmosphere.
3. Late Qing Dynasty Gaotai Opera
Tonghai Gaotai Opera is a form of Huadeng (lantern) opera Gaotai that evolved by incorporating various theatrical elements based on Huadeng and folk mountain songs.
Most sources agree that Tonghai Gaotai Opera was influenced by coastal regions. According to the Tonghai County Gazetteer, it is a highly visual, representative, and technically demanding form of mobile stage art, essentially a condensed theatrical or storytelling performance.
While the art form was nurtured in the culturally rich region of Tonghai in Yunnan, it also borrowed significantly from the Gaotai traditions of coastal Guangdong. Each of the origin stories mentioned above may hold some truth and together represent different contributing factors in the evolution of Tonghai Gaotai Opera.
Historians estimate that Tonghai Gaotai has gone through cycles of prosperity, decline, and revival over the past 400 years within the long stream of traditional Chinese culture.
The development of Tonghai Gaotai Opera can be divided into several stages, with its final form taking shape in the late Qing Dynasty. According to the Ethnography of Tongren Region, Guizhou, the development of Gaotai Opera included three main stages:
- Gong-and-Drum Lantern and Silk-and-Bamboo Lantern stage, based on Huadeng Opera.
- Low Platform Opera stage, where early forms of Gaotai began to develop.
- Gaotai Opera stage, where the full-fledged mobile theatrical art form emerged.
The developmental trajectory of Tonghai Gaotai Opera closely followed this three-stage pattern.
Folk Customs
Performance Style
Tonghai Gaotai (通海高台), represented by the Qijie Gaotai (七街高台), primarily features the local Huadeng Opera (花灯戏) as its foundation. However, during its development, it has extensively incorporated elements from local Nuo Opera (傩戏), Chenhe Opera (辰河戏) from Xiangju (湘剧), and Sichuan Opera (川戏), including vocal styles and performance techniques.
Therefore, Gaotai Opera (高台戏) can be considered a newly emerged form of folk theatrical performance that fuses and innovates both local and external opera traditions. It is the product of the integration between local cultural arts and outside influences, and its artistic expression is notably comprehensive.
During the Gaotai parade, children aged 6 to 8, who have been carefully selected and trained, are secured onto the platforms. With their coordinated gestures and expressions, each Gaotai becomes a mobile mini-stage. As the procession moves slowly, the young performers enact their roles with expressive movements—snapping cigarette boxes, swinging long sleeves, mimicking rowing, cracking horsewhips, and dancing with fans—interacting vividly with the colorful scenes on the platforms, creating a charming and lively visual display.
Story Content
The stories chosen for Gaotai performances are mostly related to deities, emperors and generals, talented scholars and beautiful ladies, and heroic figures. The themes cover both ancient legends and modern life, and also reflect ethnic customs. Representative story titles include:
- Zhang Yu Boiling the Sea (《张羽煮海》)
- Liu Yi Delivers a Letter (《柳毅传书》)
- Flooding the Jinshan Temple (《水漫金山》)
- Xu Xian Borrows an Umbrella (《许仙借伞》)
- The Crossroad Inn (《十字坡》)
- Three Battles with the White Bone Demon (《三打白骨精》)
- Romance of the Western Chamber (《西厢记》)
- The Butterfly Lovers (《梁祝》)
- The General and the Prime Minister Reconciled (《将相和》)
- Borrowing the East Wind (《借东风》)
- Journey to the West (《西游记》)
- Water Margin (《水浒传》)
- Fishing Songs of Lake Qi (《杞湖渔歌》)
Performance Music
One of the major differences between Tonghai Gaotai Opera (通海高台戏) and other folk platform performance arts (拾阁民俗表演艺术) across China is that each play is composed of spoken dialogue (recitative) and sung verses, which alternate throughout the performance.
The sung portions typically include several to over a dozen musical segments, each being an independent musical unit. These musical segments often follow structures such as paired lines, four-phrase or multi-phrase single segments. Each musical phrase is accompanied by equally long instrumental accompaniments at both the beginning and end, forming a symmetrical and well-structured unit, usually consisting of four measures. This symmetry is a hallmark of Gaotai music structure.
The paired-line format is commonly used, with each musical segment performed by different characters in the play. These segments often engage in melodic and lyrical call-and-response, enhancing the theatrical dynamism.
Musically, the opera shows innovation and evolution in its modal and melodic structure. The primary mode is the pentatonic Zhi mode (徵调式), followed by Yu mode (羽调式), Gong mode (宫调式), and Shang mode (商调式). The Zhi mode maintains a complete pentatonic scale, while the other modes often appear in incomplete forms; notably, the Shang mode sometimes features a six-tone scale.
Thus, Tonghai Gaotai is considered one of the more professional and sophisticated forms among China’s various folk platform performance traditions.
Inheritance and Protection
Cultural Value of Inheritance
The Tonghai Gaotai (通海高台) plays a significant role in preserving the fine traditions of the Chinese nation and enhancing community cohesion. It also holds research value in the fields of folklore, arts, and history.
Current Status of Inheritance
Many people, especially the younger generation, remain unfamiliar with this art form, raising concerns about the future of Gaotai (高台) inheritance. Due to the substantial manpower and material resources required for the Gaotai parade, performances in Tonghai County Town (通海县城) and Yangguang Gaotai (杨广高台) have been suspended. Only the Hexi (河西) and Qijie (七街) Gaotai groups have weathered the storms, persistently carrying on the tradition while continuously introducing new elements.
Key Inheritor
Gongsun Xin (公孙馨), male, born in October 1949, is of Han ethnicity and a native of Tonghai County, Yunnan Province (云南省通海县). He is a fourth-generation national-level representative inheritor of an intangible cultural heritage project. The project is titled “Taige (Tonghai Gaotai)” (抬阁〔通海高台〕), and the applying region is Tonghai County, Yunnan Province.
Protection Measures
In November 2019, the List of National Representative Project Protection Units for Intangible Cultural Heritage was released, and the Tonghai County Cultural Center (通海县文化馆) was granted protection unit status for the “Taige (Tonghai Gaotai)” project.
On October 31, 2023, the updated List of National Representative Project Protection Units for Intangible Cultural Heritage was announced. Due to significant changes in the nature and structure of the original protection unit, it was deemed no longer eligible. The Tonghai County Cultural Center (Tonghai County Intangible Cultural Heritage Protection Center) (通海县文化馆〔通海县非物质文化遗产保护中心〕) was re-designated as the new protection unit.
Social Impact
Major Events
On February 8, 2016, a Spring Festival parade was held in Tonghai County Town, Yunnan Province (云南省通海县城), during which the Tonghai Gaotai was performed.
From January 1 to February 29, 2020, the Tonghai New Year cultural and sports series included: a Spring Festival sports competition, opera performances in rural areas, the 18th Tonghai Spring Flower Street Fair, folk art exhibitions, Xiushan Park activities, and “Three Services to the Countryside” campaigns (culture, science, and healthcare). The Tonghai Gaotai was one of the featured performances during the celebrations.
昌宁县耈街乡苗族服饰制作技艺 Miao Ethnic Costume-making Skill in Changning County, Baoshan
楚雄州禄丰县舍资镇彝族医药 Traditional Medicine of Yi Ethnic Minority in Lufeng County, Chuxiong
The art of making palm-leaf manuscripts (贝叶经制作技艺) is a traditional craft originating from Xishuangbanna (西双版纳), Yunnan Province, China. Recognized as one of China’s National Intangible Cultural Heritage items, this ancient technique involves engraving Buddhist scriptures onto specially treated leaves of the Corypha umbraculifera palm tree (贝叶棕), known as “Guo Lan” (郭懒) in the Dai language.
Cultural Significance
Known as “Tan Lan” (坦懒) in the Dai language, these palm-leaf manuscripts represent a sacred medium for preserving Theravada Buddhist scriptures. Through a series of traditional processing methods, the palm leaves become resistant to insects, water, and deformation, allowing the manuscripts to survive for centuries.
Production Process
The manuscripts are created by engraving text onto prepared palm leaves (“Ge Lan” or 戈兰) using a stylus crafted by local artisans. This intricate process involves:
- Harvesting and treating palm leaves
- Cutting and preparing writing surfaces
- Engraving text with specialized metal tools
- Applying natural preservatives
Preservation Status
In 2008, this traditional craft was officially listed in:
- China’s Second National Intangible Cultural Heritage List
- Approved by the State Council of the People’s Republic of China
- Heritage Item Number: VIII-142
The art of palm-leaf manuscript making continues to be practiced by Dai ethnic artisans, preserving an important aspect of Southeast Asian Buddhist culture and traditional book-making techniques.
Historical Origins
The palm-leaf manuscript tradition (贝叶经) first originated in India and was introduced to the Dai-inhabited regions of Yunnan around the 7th century, where it flourished and developed.
Beyond recording Buddhist scriptures, Dai palm-leaf manuscripts encompass a wide range of content including:
- Astronomy and calendrical systems
- Social history
- Philosophy
- Legal codes
- Medical knowledge
- Scientific and technological achievements
Regarded as the “encyclopedia” of Dai culture, these manuscripts play a vital role in the production and daily life of the Dai people and are treasured as invaluable cultural assets.
Preservation and Transmission
Most Dai Buddhist temples maintain dedicated scripture halls to preserve these manuscripts. According to folk tradition:
- Ancient palm-leaf manuscripts numbered over 80,000 volumes
- Xishuangbanna (西双版纳) has collected more than 3,000 volumes
- Numerous manuscripts remain scattered among local communities
Linguistic and Religious Context
Known as “Tan Lan” (坦兰) in the Dai language, these manuscripts represent the canonical texts of Theravada Buddhism (南传上座部佛教).
Transmission Route
The palm-leaf manuscript tradition:
- Originated in India
- Spread to Sri Lanka with Theravada Buddhism around the 7th century CE
- Was subsequently transmitted through Myanmar and Thailand
- Finally reached the southwestern frontier regions of China’s Yunnan Province
This cultural transmission route reflects the historical exchanges along the Southern Silk Road and the spread of Buddhist civilization across Southeast Asia.
Technical Characteristics
Palm-leaf manuscripts exhibit unique craftsmanship features:
- Format Flexibility
The engraved content is not constrained by fixed specifications, allowing for adaptable layouts. - Decorative Finishing
Manuscript edges are traditionally adorned with:
- Gold powder
- Red or black lacquer
This creates an aesthetic contrast between the natural leaf and decorated borders.
- Durability Features
The processed palm leaves possess remarkable qualities:
- Insect resistance
- Waterproof properties
- Shape stability
- Exceptional longevity (capable of preservation for centuries or even millennia)
- Functional Design
The treated surface provides:
- Optimal texture for clear character engraving
- Excellent ink adherence
- Resistance to fading
- Visual Characteristics
Combining:
- Rustic simplicity of natural materials
- Refined decorative elements
This creates a distinctive aesthetic that blends functionality with artistic value.
The technical sophistication demonstrates ancient artisans’ profound understanding of natural material processing and book preservation techniques.
Production Process of Palm-Leaf Manuscripts
The creation of palm-leaf manuscripts involves meticulous craftsmanship, comprising seven key stages:
1. Material Selection
Artisans collect Corypha leaves (贝多罗树叶) during June-July before monsoon, when leaves exhibit optimal flexibility. Each fan-shaped leaf (up to 2m long) is carefully harvested along natural seams, then trimmed to standard dimensions (70cm × 7cm). Selected leaves are bundled in groups of 10, secured with bamboo strips for uniform drying.
2. Boiling & Sun-Drying
Bundled leaves undergo:
- Boiling in rice-wash water with tamarind/lemon (酸角/柠檬) for 4-6 hours
- Rinsing with river sand to remove acidic residues
- Sun-drying on bamboo racks in ventilated areas
This process achieves:
- Natural bleaching (green→pale yellow)
- Starch removal for insect resistance
- Enhanced writing surface preparation
3. Leaf Trimming
Dried leaves are precision-trimmed using:
- Specialized wooden templates (45×5cm)
- Twin-peg alignment system (14cm spaced holes)
- Razor-sharp knives for edge finishing
Each leaf receives two standard holes, ensuring uniform dimensions for later binding.
4. Pressing
Leaves undergo compression in:
- Traditional press frames (100×10×5cm)
- Modern nut-tightened systems
- 15-20 days under weighted pressure
- Planing for ultimate smoothness
This guarantees permanent flatness for engraving.
5. Line Marking
Specialized tools create writing guides:
- Ink lines (4/5/6/8 per leaf)
- Customized marking frames
- Natural ink: soot + plant extract
- “Snap-line” technique for precision
Pre-treatment with Clerodendrum leaves (臭牡丹叶) prevents insect damage.
6. Engraving
Master craftsmen employ:
Customized styluses (15cm iron-tipped)
Personal grinding stones
Numbered sequencing system
3-layer working stack:
- Engraving leaf
- Guide leaf
- Baseboard
Each character requires 5-7 precise strokes.
7. Inking & Preservation
Final treatment ensures permanence:
Soot-oil ink application
Sawdust cleaning process
Edge gilding (black/red/gold)
Specialized binding:
- 500-600 leaves/case
- Wooden cover protection
Finished manuscripts withstand millennia of preservation, combining sacred text with enduring material science.
Preservation and Inheritance
Heritage Value
Approximately 4,000-5,000 volumes of Dai-language palm-leaf manuscripts have been discovered in Xishuangbanna (西双版纳), Pu’er (普洱), Lincang (临沧), and Dehong (德宏) regions of Yunnan, with over 2,000 volumes officially cataloged.
The Dai people of Xishuangbanna share ethnic origins (Baiyue ancestry) with the Thai people of Thailand, the Lao people of Laos, and the Shan people of Myanmar. United by their common faith in Theravada Buddhism and interconnected geographical habitats, they have collectively formed a distinctive Southeast Asian Palm-Leaf Manuscript Cultural Sphere.
As intangible cultural heritage often regarded as “living fossils” of folk cultural history, Yunnan’s palm-leaf manuscripts represent one such remarkable example. Dubbed “Dai Culture Inscribed on Leaves”, these manuscripts are:
- A cultural treasure unique to China
- Priceless gems of the Chinese nation’s cultural heritage
Academic Significance
Palm-leaf manuscripts serve as vital carriers of traditional Dai culture, holding immense value for:
- Historical research
- Ethnological studies
The Dai people cherish these manuscripts as “divine vessels carrying Dai history and culture” and regard them as their “encyclopedia”. Many Buddhist temples and households in Xishuangbanna preserve them with reverence.
Inheritors
Bokonglun (波空论)
- Male, born January 1948
- Dai ethnicity
- Recognized as the 4th batch National Intangible Cultural Heritage Representative Inheritor
- Designated for: Palm-leaf Manuscript Making Technique
Protection Measures
Timeline of Conservation Measures for the Dai Palm-leaf Manuscript Making Skills
| Time | Conservation Measures |
|---|---|
| 2010 | Menghai County (Menghai County) launched: |
| – Training workshops for palm-leaf manuscript techniques (Training workshops for palm-leaf manuscript techniques) | |
| – Cultural competitions (Cultural competitions) | |
| – Established Dai Zhangha Heritage Center (Established Dai Zhangha Heritage Center) | |
| – Initiated “Intangible Heritage in Schools & Communities” programs (Initiated “Intangible Heritage in Schools & Communities” programs) | |
| November 2019 | – Listed in China’s National Intangible Cultural Heritage Representative Project Catalog (Listed in China’s National Intangible Cultural Heritage Representative Project Catalog) |
| – Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture Cultural Center designated as official preservation institution (Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture Cultural Center designated as official preservation institution) | |
| October 31, 2023 | – The cultural center passed evaluation as competent protection unit in Updated List of National Intangible Cultural Heritage Preservation Institutions (The cultural center passed evaluation as competent protection unit in Updated List of National Intangible Cultural Heritage Preservation Institutions) |
| – This living tradition continues to bridge ancient wisdom with modern cultural preservation efforts across Southeast Asia (This living tradition continues to bridge ancient wisdom with modern cultural preservation efforts across Southeast Asia) |
Historical Origin
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Origin: Midu folk songs refer to the folk songs passed down within Midu County in Yunnan Province, represented by tunes such as “Xiao He Tang Shui” (Little River Flows), “Midu Shan Ge” (Midu Mountain Song), “Shi Da Jie” (Ten Sisters), and “Xiu He Bao” (Embroidering a Purse). These songs encompass various musical genres, including mountain songs, folk tunes, dance songs, and custom-related songs, and are the collective term for the folk songs of Han and ethnic minorities in Midu.
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Cultural Background: Midu folk songs are a composite system of diverse cultures, formed by the integration and condensation of various cultures. They are primarily based on the ancient Dian cultures such as “He Man Culture,” “Bo Ren Culture,” “Ai Lao Culture,” and “Cuan Ren Culture,” which merged into the “Nanzhao Culture.” Over time, they developed by incorporating elements from the Yangtze River and Yellow River cultures of Central China. This rich cultural heritage has made Midu a “treasure chest” of ethnic traditional culture.
Artistic Form
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Performance Style: Midu folk songs are typically performed as duets between men and women, often in a call-and-response format. The singing style usually employs falsetto (a high-pitched voice), with a melody range generally within a twelfth. The modal system is predominantly based on the Yu mode (6th degree). The song structure is often in three parts (A+B+C), where the “B” section is usually a supporting phrase. The lyrics are mostly in couplets, inspired by the surroundings and emotions, often improvised. The melody structure is relatively loose, and different performers in the same region may have varying interpretations. These songs are usually performed without accompaniment.
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Types of Folk Songs:
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Mountain Songs: These include Han ethnic songs like “Tian Geng Diao” (Field Ridge Tune) and “Geng Zi Diao”, as well as songs shared by Han and Yi ethnic groups, such as “Guo Shan Diao” (Crossing the Mountain Tune), “Fang Yang Diao” (Herding Sheep Tune), and “Shan Ge Zi Diao”. Adapted mountain songs like “Xiao He Tang Shui” and “Midu Shan Ge”, and regional songs like “Mi Di Diao”, “Mi Zhi Diao”, and “Er Li Ban Qiang” are also popular. Mountain songs often deal with themes of marriage and love, are sung in open fields, and feature high-pitched and free-rhythmed melodies.
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Folk Tunes: These are divided into local folk tunes and Huadeng (lantern festival) folk tunes. Local folk tunes, such as “Gan Ma Diao” (Horse Herding Tune) and “Xiao Xiao Hu Lu Kai Bai Hua”, are deeply rooted in Midu’s local culture. Huadeng folk tunes, transmitted through various historical channels, have blended with Han, Yi, and Bai cultures to form a unique regional style. Representative songs include “Xiu He Bao”, “Xiu Xiang Dai”, and “Yuan Xiao Hua Gu”.
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Dance Songs: The “Da Ge Diao” (Song for Circle Dance) is a representative and ancient Yi ethnic song type. The circle dance is performed on various occasions such as festivals, celebrations, and weddings and funerals. Its content covers a wide range of topics, including the formation of the world, the origin of humanity, and ethnic migration. Due to differences in Yi sub-branches and living environments, the circle dance tunes in areas like Xi Shan and Niu Jie in Midu exhibit diverse musical styles.
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Custom-Related Songs: These include songs for weddings such as “Ku Jia Ge” (Wedding Lament Song), “Ying Qin Diao”, and “Song Qin Diao”, and for funerals such as “Ku Wang Diao” (Mourning the Deceased) and “Zhi Lu Ge”. There are also various songs used in sacrificial activities.
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Heritage and Protection
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Current Status: Midu folk songs were listed as a national intangible cultural heritage in 2004. However, with social development and the passing of older generations of folk singers, the传承of Midu folk songs has faced challenges and is at risk of being lost.
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Protection Measures: The Midu County government has implemented several initiatives to protect and promote Midu folk songs. These include hosting events like the “Xiao He Tang Shui” Singer Competition and the Dali Midu Folk Song Festival, establishing ecological protection zones for Midu folk songs, and strengthening the队伍建设of intangible cultural heritage传承people. Additionally, Midu has integrated folk song culture into tourism, creating new cultural tourism products that combine traditional folk songs with modern music elements, thereby enhancing the influence and vitality of Midu folk songs.
“A Xi Xian Ji” is the creation epic of the A Xi people, a subgroup of the Yi ethnic group, and has been passed down orally among the A Xi people in the Xishan area of Mile City, Yunnan Province. Below is detailed information about “A Xi Xian Ji”:
Overview
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Name Origin: “A Xi Xian Ji” is derived from the A Xi language “sei ji,” which means “song,” and it is the general term for the poetry and melodies of this work.
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Creative Style: “A Xi Xian Ji” is an oral literature created and sung by the A Xi people in their native language. It has a fixed, systematic, and complete content, forming a complete narrative epic.
Historical Background
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Origins and Formation: “A Xi Xian Ji” originated in the primitive society period and was formed during the feudal society period. It has been passed down orally among the A Xi people for thousands of years.
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Collection and Dissemination: In the 1940s, it was collected and published by poet Guang Weiran and linguist Yuan Jiahua, making it known to the outside world.
Content Structure
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Content Composition: The poem consists of about 2,000 lines and is divided into four parts: “Prologue,” “The Most Ancient Times,” “Men and Women Become One Family,” and “Epilogue.”
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Main Content:
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“Prologue”: This is the opening statement, which varies depending on the singer and the performance context.
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“The Most Ancient Times”: It describes the origin of all things in the universe, the causes of various natural phenomena, the hardships of early human life, and the struggles they endured. It also reflects the simple customs of the A Xi people and the contradictions between humans and nature.
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“Men and Women Become One Family”: This part focuses on the love and marriage of men and women, vividly portraying the A Xi people’s pursuit of pure love and beautiful things.
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“Epilogue”: This is the closing statement, which also varies depending on the singer and the performance context.
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Cultural Value
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Cultural Significance: “A Xi Xian Ji” is the “root” of the A Xi people, reflecting their exploration of nature, their courage, wisdom, and their simple materialism.
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Interdisciplinary Value: It provides valuable materials and unique perspectives for studying the history, culture, economy, philosophy, religion, ethics, and aesthetic concepts of the A Xi people, making it valuable for interdisciplinary research.
Transmission Status
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Transmission Methods: The main ways of transmitting “A Xi Xian Ji” include family transmission, teacher transmission, and natural transmission.
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Current Status: In 2011, “A Xi Xian Ji” was listed as a national intangible cultural heritage, and He Yuzhong is the representative inheritor of the project.
How the Epic Affects the Lives of the A Xi People
As the creation epic of the Yi ethnic group’s A Xi subgroup, “A Xi Xian Ji” has had a profound impact on the lives of the A Xi people, mainly in the following aspects:
1. Cultural Heritage and Ethnic Identity
“A Xi Xian Ji” is the “root谱” of the A Xi people. Through oral transmission, it records the history, religious beliefs, and customs of the A Xi people, serving as an important carrier of cultural heritage. This epic helps the A Xi people maintain their ethnic characteristics and enhances their sense of ethnic identity and cultural pride.
2. Social Life and Ethical Values
The epic contains rich ethical values, such as norms for marriage, family, and ethics. For example, the story of “brother and sister becoming husband and wife” warns future generations against blood-related marriages, reflecting the A Xi people’s emphasis on family and social order. Additionally, the concept of harmony between humans and nature in the epic influences the A Xi people’s production and lifestyle.
3. Ecological Awareness and Environmental Protection
The simple ecological ethics in “A Xi Xian Ji,” such as reverence for and protection of nature, and taboos related to animals and plants, have deeply influenced the ecological awareness of the A Xi people. This awareness is reflected in their daily lives and, through taboos, helps protect the ecological environment.
4. Educational and Entertainment Functions
“A Xi Xian Ji” is not only a cultural treasure of the A Xi people but also an educational tool. Through singing the epic, the A Xi people can learn about history, philosophy, religion, and other knowledge, while also enjoying entertainment during festivals and family gatherings.
5. Artistic and Musical Heritage
The singing style and melodies (“Xian Ji tune”) of “A Xi Xian Ji” are an important part of the A Xi people’s musical art. They enrich the spiritual life of the A Xi people and serve as an important source of inspiration for their artistic creation.
6. Social Cohesion and National Spirit
The praise for the ancestors of the A Xi people and the longing for a better life in the epic inspire the national spirit and cohesion of the A Xi people. It is not only a bond of cultural heritage but also a spiritual pillar when facing difficulties.
In summary, “A Xi Xian Ji” is not only an important part of the A Xi people’s culture but also an important guide for their lives, having a profound impact on cultural heritage, social life, and ecological awareness.
1. Living Fossil of Historical Memory: Reconstructing the Social Development of the Ashi People
2. Mirror of Social Structure: Decoding Traditional Ethics and Institutions
3. Religious Philosophy Canon: Insights into Cosmology and Ecological Wisdom
4. Language and Literature Gene Bank: Analyzing the Artistic Traits of Oral Tradition
5. Living Inheritance of Artistic Forms: Cultural Expression in Music and Ritual
6. Cultural Identity Bond: Sustaining the Spiritual 纽带 of the Ethnic Community
Conclusion: A Cultural Code Across Disciplines
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